DoJG basic reference

㊦あげる(1)	㊦呉れる・くれる(2)	㊦しい
㊦あげる(2)	㊦来る・くる(1)	㊦しか
㊦間・あいだ(に)	㊦来る・くる(2)	㊦しまう
㊦あまり	㊦まだ	㊦知る・しる
㊦ある(1)	㊦まで	㊦そうだ(1)
㊦ある(2)	㊦までに	㊦そうだ(2)
㊦あとで	㊦前に・まえに	㊦それで
㊦ば	㊦毎・まい	㊦それでは
㊦ばかり	㊦まま	㊦それから
㊦ばよかった	㊦ましょう	㊦それなら
㊦だい	㊦見える・みえる	㊦それとも
㊦だけ	㊦みる	㊦そして
㊦だけで(は)なく～(も)	㊦も	㊦過ぎる・すぎる
㊦だろう	㊦も(2)	㊦好きだ・すきだ
㊦出す・だす	㊦もう	㊦少ない・すくない
㊦で(1)	㊦も~も	㊦する(1)
㊦で(2)	㊦もの(だ)	㊦する(2)
㊦で(3)	㊦もらう(1)	㊦する(3)
㊦で(4)	㊦もらう(2)	㊦する(4)
㊦でも	㊦な	㊦すると
㊦どう	㊦など	㊦たい
㊦へ	㊦ながら	㊦堪らない・たまらない
㊦が(1)	㊦ないで	㊦為(に)・ため(に)
㊦が(2)	㊦なければならない	㊦たら
㊦がる	㊦なくなる	㊦たらどうですか
㊦ごろ	㊦なくて	㊦たり～たりする
㊦ごとに	㊦なら	㊦たって
㊦始める・はじめる	㊦なさい	㊦て
㊦はず	㊦ね	㊦ても
㊦ほど	㊦に(1)	㊦てもいい
㊦ほうがいい	㊦に(2)	㊦と(1)
㊦ほうが~より	㊦に(3)	㊦と(2)
㊦欲しい・ほしい(1)	㊦に(4)	㊦と(3)
㊦欲しい・ほしい(2)	㊦に(5)	㊦と(4)
㊦一番・いちばん	㊦に(6)	㊦と言えば
㊦行く・いく(1)	㊦に(7)	㊦という
㊦行く・いく(2)	㊦に違いない・にちがいない	㊦とか
㊦いる(1)	㊦難い・にくい	㊦時・とき
㊦いる(2)	㊦にしては	㊦ところだ(1)
㊦要る・いる(3)	㊦にする	㊦ところだ(2)
㊦自分・じぶん(1)	㊦の(1)	㊦として
㊦自分・じぶん(2)	㊦の(2)	㊦としては
㊦か(1)	㊦の(3)	㊦つもり
㊦か(2)	㊦の(4)	㊦って(1)
㊦か(どうか)	㊦のだ	㊦って(2)
㊦かい	㊦ので	㊦うちに
㊦かもしれない	㊦のに(1)	㊦は(1)
㊦から(1)	㊦のに(2)	㊦わ(2)
㊦から(2)	㊦のは～だ	㊦は～だ
㊦から(3)	㊦お	㊦は～が
㊦かしら	㊦を(1)	㊦はいけない
㊦方・かた	㊦を(2)	㊦分かる・わかる
㊦代わりに・かわりに	㊦を(3)	㊦わけだ
㊦けれども	㊦を(4)	㊦屋・や
㊦聞こえる・きこえる	㊦多い・おおい	㊦や
㊦嫌いだ・きらいだ	㊦おく	㊦やはり
㊦こと(1)	㊦お～になる	㊦易い・やすい
㊦こと(2)	㊦お～する	㊦ようだ
㊦ことがある(1)	㊦終わる・おわる	㊦ように(1)
㊦ことがある(2)	㊦られる(1)	㊦ように(2)
㊦ことが出来る・できる	㊦られる(2)	㊦ように言う
㊦ことになる	㊦らしい	㊦ようになる
㊦ことにする	㊦Relative Clause	㊦ようにする
㊦ことは	㊦さ	㊦より(1)
㊦下さい・ください	㊦様・さま	㊦より(2)
㊦君・くん	㊦させる	㊦ようと思う
㊦くらい	㊦せっかく	㊦ずつ
㊦呉れる・くれる(1)	㊦し

㊦あげる (1)

Verb (Group 2)

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Someone gives something to a person who is not a member of the giver's in group but whose status is about equal to that of the giver.	Give
【Related Expression: くれる1; (もらう1)】

Key Sentences

(ks). 私は良子に花をあげた・あげました。

I gave Yoshiko flowers.

Examples

(a). 大野さんは山本さんに本をあげた。

Ms. Ono gave Mr. Yamamoto a book.

(b). 君はアンに何をあげましたか。

What did you give to Ann?

Notes

1. あげる is one of a set of giving and receiving verbs; the meaning is 'give'. However, あげる cannot be used when the indirect object is the first person (i.e., I or we) or a person with whom the speaker empathizes (usually a member of the speaker's in-group). Thus, (1a) and (1b) are ungrammatical.

a. *花子は私に本をあげた。
Hanako gave me a book.
b. ＊花子は私のむすこに本をあげた。
Hanako gave my son a book.

The reason for this is as follows: あげる requires the giver's point of view or a neutral point of view when describing an event. When an event involves the first person or a person the speaker empathizes with, however, the event is normally described from that person's point of view. Therefore, if the first person or a person the speaker empathizes with is a recipient in a あげる sentences, a viewpoint conflict arises, making the sentences ungrammatical. The grammatical sentences for (1a) and (1b) are (2a) and (2b), respectively.

(⇨ くれる1)

a. 花子は私に本をくれた。
Hanako gave me a book.
b. 花子は私のむすこに本をくれた。
Hanako gave my son a book.

2. The humble polite version of あげる is 差し上げる. Example:

私は先生に本をさしあげました。
I gave my teacher a book.

The degree of politeness expressed in 差し上げる is higher than that of 下さる and it いただく, which are the polite versions of くれる and もらう, respectively.

(⇨ くれる1, Related expression II)

3. When the giver is in a higher position than the recipient or the recipient is a person very close to the speaker, やる is used instead of あげる. Examples:

a . 私は弟に本をやった。
I gave my little brother a book.
b. ひろしは猫にミルクをやった。
Hiroshi gave milk to the cat.
c. Tom is the speaker's intimate friend.
私はトムにケーキをやりました。
I gave a cake to Tom.

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㊦あげる (2)

Auxiliary Verb (Group 2)

Someone gives some action as a favour to a person who is not a member of the giver's in group but whose status is about equal of the giver.	Do something for someone; do someone a favour by doing something
【Related Expression: くれる2; (もらう2)】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 私は信男さんにネクタイを買ってあげた・あげました。

I bought a tie for Nobuo.

(ksb). 僕は春子さんを慰めてあげた・あげました。

I consoled Haruko.

Formation

Vて	あげる
	話してあげる	talk for someone's sake
	食べてあげる	eat for someone's sake

Examples

(a). 君はお母さんに何をしてあげましたか。

What did you do for your mother?

(b). 田中さんはスミスさんに本を貸してあげた。

Mr. Tanaka lent a book to Mr. Smith.

Notes

1. あげる is used as an auxiliary verb with the て form of verbs. The meaning of Verb-てあげる is 'do something for someone' or 'do someone a favour by doing something'. The restriction which applies to あげる1 also applies to あげる2. Namely, sentences with Verb-てあげる are descriptions from the viewpoint of the benefactor (i.e., the person in subject position); therefore, the indirect object must not be the first person or a person the speaker empathizes with. (⇨ ㊦あげる (1)1, Note 1) Thus, (1a) and (1b) are ungrammatical.

a. *花子は私に日本語を教えてあげた。
Hanako taught me Japanese.
b. *メアリーは私のむすめにペンを買ってあげた。
Mary bought a pen for my daughter.

The grammatical sentences for (1a) and (1b) are (2a) and (2b), respectively. (⇨ ㊦呉れる・くれる (2))

a. 花子は私に日本語を教えてくれた。

b. メアリーは私のむすめにペンを買ってくれた。

As in KS (B), if the person receiving the benefit is the direct object of the sentence, the indirect object is omitted. Therefore, (3a) and (3b) are ungrammatical.

a. *僕は春子さんに春子さんをなぐさめてあげた。
b. *僕は春子さんになぐさめてあげた。

When the main verb is intransitive, あげる is not used along with に.

The following sentence is ungrammatical:

*私達はジョンに働いてあげた。
We worked for John.

In this case, の為に 'for the sake of' is used, as in (5). (⇨ ㊦為(に)・ため(に))

私達はジョンのために働いた。
We worked for John's sake.

4. The humble polite version of Verb-てあげる is Verb-てさしあげる. Example：

私は先生にピアノをひいてさしあげました。
I played the piano for my teacher.

The degree of politeness expressed in Verb-てさしあげる is higher than that of Verb-てくださる and Verb-ていただく, which are the polite versions of Verb-てくれる and Verb-てもらう, respectively, (⇨ ㊦呉れる・くれる (1))

5. When the benefactor is in a higher position than the recipient or is of equal status and his relationship to the recipient is close, Verb-てやる is used instead of Verb-てあげる. Examples:

a. 私は妹にレコードを買ってやった。
I bought my little sister a record.
b. じゅんは猫に魚を焼いてやった。
Jun roasted fish for his cat.
[John is the speaker's close iriend.]
c. 私はジョンにラジオを貸してやりました。
I lent John my radio.

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㊦間・あいだ(に)

Phrase

The space between two temporal or physical points.	During (the time when); while
【Related Expression: ながら; うちに】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 私がご飯を食べている間山田さんはテレビを見ていた・いました。

While I was eating my meal, Mr Yamada was watching TV.

(ksb). 私がご飯を食べている間に山田さんが来た・来ました。

While I was eating my meal, Mr. Yamada came in.

Formation

(i)Vて	いる間 (に)
	話している間 (に)	While someone is talking
	食べている間 (に)	While someone is eating
(ii)Adjective い	間 (に)
	間 (に) 高い	While something is expensive
(iii)Adjectiveな stem	な間 (に)
	静かな間 (に)	While something is quiet
(iv)Noun	の間 (に)
	夏休みの間 (に)	During the summer vacation

Examples

(a). スミスさんは日本にいる間英語を教えていました。

Mr. Smith was teaching English (all during the time) while he was in Japan.

(b). 子供達がテルビを見ている間私は本を読んでいました。

I was reading a book (all during the time) while my children were watching TV.

(c). 高橋さんはアメリカにいる間にゴルフを覚えました。

Mr. Takahashi learned golf while he was in America.

(d). 中川さんのお母さんは中川さんがパリに留学している間に病気になりました。

Mr. Nakagawa's mother become ill while he was studying in Paris.

(e). 秋子は子供がいない間に本を読む。

Akiko reads books while her children are not at home.

Notes

1. The subjects for the 間-clause (=subordinate clause) and the main clause can be different as in Exs. (b), (d) and (e) or can be the same as in Exs. (a) and (c). When the subjects are different, the subject in the 間-clause is marked not by は but by が.

2. The verb before 間 is normally nonpast Vている or いる regardless of the tense of the main clause.

3. 間, if followed by に, a particle of specific time point, means that the time span of an event identified by the main clause falls within the time span of an event identified by the 間-clause, as in Exs. (c) and (e). 間 without に, as in Exs. (a) and (b), indicates that the two events are assumed to cover the same span of time. Thus, if the main verb is a punctual verb, 間 should be used with に. The following sentence, therefore, is ungrammatical.

*山田さんがパリに留学している間お母さんが病気になった。
*Mr. Yamada's mother became ill (all during the time) while he was studying in Paris.

The difference between 間に and 間 can be diagrammed as follows [see bottom of Notes].

4. A noun or an adjective can be used before 間.

休みの間レストランでアルバイトをしました。
During the summer vacation I worked part time at a restaurant.

休みの間にガールフレンドが出来ました。
During the summer vacation I found a girlfriend.

長い間母に手紙を書いていません。
I haven't written to my mother for a long time.

若い間に本を出来るだけたくさん読みなさい。
Read as many books as you can while you are young.

5. The non-temporal 間 which means 'space between' or 'relationship' is used in the structure A と B (と) の間 'between A and B' as in:

日本とアメリカ(と)の間には海しかない。
There is only ocean between Japan and America.

山口と僕(と)の間は決して悪くない。
The relationship between Yamaguchi and me is not bad at all.

The usage of 間 meaning 'relationship' in (7) is a metaphorical extension of physical space between two persons.

6. The verb いる '(an animate object) exists' can be used by itself, as in Ex. (c), due to its stative nature. Some adjectives such as 高い 'expensive', 安い 'cheap', 暖かい 'warm', 涼しい 'cool', 若い 'young' can also be used in this way, as follows:

若い間にスポーツをいろいろした方がいいです。
It's better to do various sports while you are young.

These adjectives, however, sound a little more natural with うちに 'while '.

[Related Expression]

If the subjects of the main and subordinate clauses are identical and if the verbs are action verbs, 間 can be replaced by ながら but with different meaning.

雪子はご飯を食べている間テレビを見ていた。
Yukiko was watching TV while she was eating her meal.

雪子はご飯を食べながらテレビを見ていた。
Literally: Yukiko was primarily watching TV, although simultaneously she was eating her meal. (=Yukiko was eating her meal while watching TV.)

[1] and [2] focus on 'duration of some action/state' and 'accompanying minor action', respectively.

[Table from (1)]

間に		-------Event 1------- (main clause) Event 2
		----------------------------------------- (subordinate clause)
間		(main clause) Event 2
		----------------------------------------- (subordinate clause)

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㊦あまり

Adverb

The degree of something is not great.

(not) very much; (not) very

Key Sentences

(ks). この本はあまりよくない・よくありません。

This book is not very good.

Examples

(a). 鈴木さんはあまり食べない。

Miss Suzuki does not eat much.

(b). 私はあまり速く走れません。

I cannot run very fast.

Notes

1. The adverb あまり usually occurs in negative sentences, meaning 'not very (much)'. あまり is one of a group of adverbs which co-occur with negative predicates. They include:

全然 '(not) at all'; 滅多に 'rarely, seldom'; 決して 'never, by no means'; さっぱり '(not) at all; 少しも '(not) a bit'; ちっとも '(not) a bit'.

2. あんまり is a phonological variant of あまり and usually used in conversation.

3. In limited situations, あまり can be used in affirmative sentences, too. In this case, it means 'very; too' with a negative implication. Examples:

a. スコットがあまリ失礼なことを言うのでサリーは怒って帰ってしまった。
Since Scott was very rude (literally: said very rude things), Sally got mad and went home.
b. 井上さんはあまリ酒を飲んだので病気になった。
Mr. Inoue drank too much and became ill.
c. それはあんまリです。
You're (literally: That's) too cruel.

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㊦ある (1)

Verb (Group 1)

An inanimate thing exists.	Be; exist; have
【Related Expression: いる1; もっている】

Key Sentences

(ksa). この町(に)は大学が三つある・あります。

In this town are three universities.

(ksb). エッフェル塔はパリにある・あります。

The Eiffel Tower is in Paris.

Examples

(a). 私のアパト(に)はテレビが二台ある。

There are two TV sets in my apartment.

(b). デトロイトはミシガン州にあります。

Detroit is in the State of Michigan.

(c). 和田さんのうち(に)はクーラーがない。

There is no air-conditioner at Mr. Wada's.

Notes

1. ある expresses the existence of or the possession of inanimate things including abstract things such as events and problems. Thus, (1) is ungrammatical.

*この町には日本人がある。
There are Japanese in this town.

For animate things, いる1 is used.

2. The negative informal form of ある is not あらない but ない.

3. Two sentence patterns can be used with ある. The Key Sentence (A) pattern is used when a location is presented as a topic. In this case, what exists is under focus. In this pattern, the location marker に can optionally drop. The Key Sentence (B) pattern is used when something which exists is presented as a topic. In this case, where it exists is under focus. Compare the two patterns in (2).

A: 早稲田大学はどこにありますか。
Where is Waseda University?
B: 早稲田大学は東京にあります。
Waseda University is in Tokyo.
A: 東京には早稲田大学しかありませんか。
Literally: Are there no universities in Tokyo but Waseda University? (= Is Waseda University the only university in Tokyo?)
B: いいえ，東京には大学がたくさんあります。
No, there are many universities in Tokyo.

4. A thing (whether animate or inanimate) can also occur in the location position of Key Sentence (A). In this case, the sentence expresses possession rather than existence. Examples:

a. この車(に)はカー・ステレオがある。
Literally: There is a car stereo in this car.(= This car has a car stereo.)
b. 私(に)は車がある。
Literally: There is a car with me.(= I have a car.)

Note that even if ある expresses the idea of possession, possessed things are marked not by を but by が. This is because ある essentially indicates existence.

5. When ある is used to express the idea of having and the object is animate, that object must be someone who maintains a very close relationship with the possessor, such as a family member, a relative or a friend. Thus, (4) is acceptable, but (5) is odd.

私(に)は子供が三人ある。
I have three children.

??私(に)は運転手がある。
I have a chauffeur.

Since ある in this usage is a possessive expression, it cannot be used in situations where the idea indicates existence. Thus,(6) is unacceptable.

*私(に)は母がもうありません。
I don't have my mother now.

In this case, いる must be used.

6. When ある is used for events such as parties and concerts, the particle marking locations must be で as in(7).

(⇨ で1; に6)

今日サムのうちで/*にパーティがある。
There is a party at Sam's today.

【Related Expressions】

I. There is another possessive expression, 持っている, which is the てform of 持つ 'hold' followed by the auxiliary verb いる. However, 持っている is used only when the possessor is animate and the possessed thing is inanimate. Thus, [1] is acceptable, but [2] and [3] are not.

[1]

ジョンはいい車を持っている。
John has a good car.

[2]

*ジョンは妹を持っている。
John has a younger sister.

[3]

*この車はクーラを持っている。
This car has an air-conditioner.

Groups and organizations of people such as political parties, countries, institutions and companies can also be possessors in sentences with 持っている, as in [4].

[4]

この大学はいい図書館を持っている。
This university has a good library.

II. いる1 is also used to express existence. However, いる1 is used only for animate objects. (See Note 1.)

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㊦ある (2)

Auxiliary Verb (Group 1)

Something has been done to something and the resultant state of that action remains.	Have been done; be done
【Related Expression: いる2; おく】

Key Sentences

(ks). それはもうジョンに話してある・あります。

It's been told to John already.

Formation

Vてある	話してある	Has been said
	食べてある	Has been eaten

Examples

(a). 飲み物はもう買ってあります。

Drinks have already been bought.

(b). 窓が開けてある。

The window has been open/is open.

Notes

1. ある is used with Verbて as an auxiliary verb. Two points are indicated by the Verbてある expression:

Someone did something to X. (Thus, Verbて is usually a transitive verb.)

X is still in that state.

X is most frequently marked by the topic marker は or the subject marker が; occasionally it is marked by the direct object marker を.

2. The agent is usually omitted because he is unimportant, unknown or obvious.

【Related Expressions】

There are expressions similar to Verbてある, namely, Verbている and Verbておく. Let us compare [1] and [2] with Example (b).

[1]

窓が開いている。
The window is open.

[2]

私は窓を開けておく。
I open/ will open the window (in advance).

[1] simply means that the window is open. It doesn't imply that someone opened it. 開いて, the てform of 開く 'open', is an intransitive verb. As seen in [2], Verbておく means "do something in advance for future convenience'". An important difference between Verbてある and Verbておく is that the former expresses a state, while the latter expresses an action. Note that in Verbておく sentences, the agent is not omitted unless it is known.

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㊦あとで

Conjunction

Some state or action takes place at a time (not always immediately) after another state or action has taken place.	After
【Related Expression: たら; てから】
【Antonym Expression: 前に】

Key Sentences

(ksa). メイソンさんは日本へ行ったあとで病気になった・なりました。

Mr. Mason became ill after he went to Japan.

(ksb). 私は授業のあとで図書館に行った・行きました。

After the class I went to the library.

Formation

Vinformal past	あとで
	話したあとで	After someone has talked/had talked
	食べたあとで	After someone has eaten/had eaten
Noun	のあとで
	勉強のあとで	After study

Examples

(a). ご飯を食べたあと(で)すぐ勉強しました。

I studied right after I had eaten my meal.

(b). 山田さんはビールを飲んだあと(で)寝てしまった。

Mr. Yamada fell asleep after he drank beer.

(c). 戦争が終わったあと(で)東京に戻りました。

I went back to tokyo after the war ended.

(d). 食事のあとでテニスをした。

I played tennis after my meal.

Notes

The particle で may be omitted in informal speech.

【Related Expressions】

Vinformal past あとで is crucially different from Verbてから in two respects: Verbてから is very awkward if the main clause expresses something beyond the control of the subject or the speaker of the sentence. Verb informal past あとで is free from such restriction.

[1]

私がうちへ帰ったあとで/???帰ってから雨が降った。
It rained after I came home.

Secondly, Verbてから indicates 'the space of time following after', but Verb informal past あとで indicates 'any space of time after'. Thus,

[2]

日本へ来てから/*来たあとで何年になりますか。
How many years have passed since you came to Japan?

(⇨ から2)

II. Verb informal past あとで can be replaced by Verb informal pastら when the latter is used with a purely temporal meaning (i.e. 'after', 'when'). Thus, Example (a), (b) and (c) can be rephrased as [3a], [3b] and [3c], respectively.

[3]

a. ご飯を食べたらすぐ勉強しました。
b. 山田さんはビールを飲んだら寝てしまった。
c. 戦争が終わったら東京にもどりました。

However, if Verb informal pastら has a non-temporal meaning(i.e., 'if'), it cannot be replaced by Verb informal past あとで, as illustrated by [4].

[4]

a. 日本へ行ったら/*行ったあとでいいでしょう。
Literally: It would be nice if you go to Japan.(= You should go to Japan.)
b. これを読んだら/*読んだあとでどうですか。
Literally: How would it be if you read this.(= Why don't you read this?)

(⇨ たら)

Basic Page 81

㊦ば

Conjunction

A conjunction which indicates that the preceding clause expresses a conditional.	If
【Related Expression: たら; (なら, と4)】

Key Sentences

(ks). この薬を飲めばよくなる・なります。

If you take this medicine, you'll get well.

Formation

(i)Group 1 verbs	Vconditionalば
	話せば	If someone talks
(ii)Group 2 verbs	Vstemれば
	食べれば	If someone eats
(iii)Irregular verbs	来る→来れば	If someone comes
	する→すれば	If someone does
(iv)Adjective い	Adjective い stemければ
	高ければ	If something is expensive
(v) Adjective な	Adjective な stem {なら(ば)/であれば}
	{静かなら(ば)/ 静かであれば}	If something is quiet
(vi)Noun+copula	Noun {なら(ば)/であれば}
	{先生なら(ば)/ 先生であれば}	If someone is a teacher

Examples

(a). これは松本先生に聞けば分かります。

You'll understand it if you ask Professor Matsumoto.

(b). その町は車で行けば三十分で行ける。

You can get to that town in thirty minutes if you go by car.

(c). 安ければ買います。

I'll buy it if it's cheap./I would buy it if were cheap.

(d). 時間があれば京都へも行きたい。

If I have time, I want to go to Kyoto too./If I had time, I would want to go to Kyoto, too.

(e). 見たければ見なさい。

If you want to see it, see it.

(f). 出来ればこれもやってください。

Please do this, too, if you can.

Notes

1. "Sentence1ばSentence2" basically expresses a general conditional relationship between the two propositions represented by Sentence1 and Sentence2. Sentence1 represents a condition and Sentence2 a proposition which holds or will hold true under the condition. (ば is, in fact, the origin of the topic marker は.)

2. Sentence2 can be a statement of the speaker's volition or hope, as in Examples (c) and (d).

(⇨ と4)

3. Sentence2 can be a command, a request or a suggestion, as in Examples (e) and (f). In this case, however, Sentence1 cannot be an action. Thus, in (1) and (2) ば is ungrammatical.

(⇨ なら; たら)

山本さんが来たら/*来れば知らせてください。
If Mr. Yamamoto comes in, please let me know.

シカゴへ行く(の)なら/*行けばバスで行ったらどうですか。
If you go to Chicago, why don't you go by bus?

4. Sentence1 can express both factual and counterfactual conditions. Thus, Examples (c) and (d) can be either factual or counterfactual statements.

(⇨ ばよかった)

5. Sentence1 can be a state or an event in the past if it is counterfactual or habitual. Examples:

もっと安ければ買いました。
I would have bought it if it had been much cheaper.

雨が降ればよく家で本を読んだものだ。
When it rained, I often read at home.

However, Sentence1 cannot be a single factual event in the past even if it represents a condition, as seen in (5).

(⇨ たら)

日本へ行ったら/*行けば日本語が上手になった。
I became good at Japanese when I went to Japan.

6."Senetnce1ばSentence2" does not mean more than a conditional relationship; therefore, this construction cannot be used when the speaker wants to suggest something by a conditional sentence. For example, (6) does not suggest that one should not approach the cage. It is acceptable only when it means, as a mere conditional statement, which one is in danger under the condition that one gets close to the cage.

そのおりに近づけばあぶないですよ。
It is dangerous if you get close to the cage.

In order to suggest that one should not approach the cage, 近づくと or 近づいたら is used instead of 近づけば.

7. There are some idiomatic expressions which utilize the "Sentence1ばSentence2" construction.

(⇨ ばよかった; なければならない; と言えば)

Basic Page 84

㊦ばかり

Particle

A particle which indicates that something is the only thing or state which exists, or the action someone will take, takes, is taking or took.	Only; just; be ready to do something; have just done something; just did something; be just doing something; about
【Related Expression: ほど (くらい); しか (だけ); とろこだ】

Key Sentences

(ksa). デザートは食べるばかりになっている・います。

The only thing left to do with the dessert is to eat it./The dessert is ready to eat.

(ksb). 友子は遊んでばかりいる・います。

The only thing Tomoko is doing is playing./Tomoko is doing nothing but playing.

(ksc). 私は昼ご飯を食べたばかりだ・です。

I had my lunch and haven't done anything else since then./I have just eaten my lunch.

(ksd). このレストランは安いばかりだ・です。

The only merit of this restaurant is that the food is inexpensive./This restaurant is just cheap.

(kse). デニスはビールばかり飲んでいる・います。

Dennis is drinking only beer.

(ksf). 私は一月ばかりパリにいた・いました。

I was in Paris for about a month.

Formation

(i)Vinformal nonpast	ばかり
	話すばかり	Be ready to talk
(ii)Vて	ばかり
	話してばかり	Be just talking
	食べてばかり	Be just eating
(iii)Vinformal past	ばかり
	話したばかり	Have just talked
	食べたばかり	Just have eaten
(iv){Adjective い informal nonpast/Adjectiveな stem}	ばかり
	高いばかり	Just expensive
	静かなばかり	Just quiet
(v)Noun	ばかり
	先生ばかり	Only teachers
(vi)Noun+Particle	ばかり
	学生にばかり	Only to students
(vii)Quantifier	ばかり
	一時間ばかり	About an hour

Examples

(a). このレポートはあと結論を書くばかりだ。

The only thing left to do with this report is to write a conclusion.

(b). 春江は泣いてばかりいて何も話そうとしない。

Harue is just crying and won't talk about anything.

(c). 松山さんは今シカゴに着いたばかりです。

Mr. Matsuyama has just arrived in Chicago now.

(d). この仕事は面倒なばかりであまり儲かりません。

This job is troublesome and doesn't bring us big profits.

(e). この寮に住んでいるのは男子学生ばかりだ。

The students who are living in this dorm are all boys.

(f). フィッシャー先生はリサとばかり話している。

Professor Fisher is talking only with Lisa.

(g). 十人ばかりの友達が手伝ってくれました。

About ten friends helped me.

Notes

1. The basic idea which ばかり expresses is that there is nothing except what is stated. When Verb informal nonpast precedes ばかり, the whole expression means there is nothing left to do (to complete something) but what is stated by the verb. In some contexts, Verb informal nonpast ばかり means that someone does nothing but what is stated. Example:

彼は笑うばかりで何も説明してくれない。
He just laughs and doesn't explain anything to me.

2. When Verb informal past precedes ばかり, the whole expression means that there has been almost no time for anything to happen since what is stated took place. That is, something has just happened, or someone has just done something.

3. When ばかり follows "Nounが" or "Nounを", が or を drops. The directional へ and に may be either deleted or retained. Other case particles do not drop when they are followed by ばかり.

4. ばかり in classical Japanese expressed the speakers conjecture and this usage is still seen in the "Quantifier ばかり" pattern, where ばかり means 'about'.

Basic Page 87

㊦ばよかった

Phrase

A phrase which expresses the speaker's regret.	I wish~ had done something
【Related Expression: てよかった】

Key Sentences

(ks). 先生に聞けばよかった・ばよかったです。

I wish I had asked my teacher.

Formation

(i)Group 1 verbs	Vconditionalばよかった
	話せばよかった	I wish someone had talked
(ii)Group 2 verbs	Vstemればよかった
	食べればよかった	I wish someone had eaten
(iii)Irregular verbs	来る→来ればよかった	I wish someone had come
	する→すればよかった	I wish someone had done

Examples

(a). あの本を読めばよかった。

I wish I had read that book.

(b). ウェルズさんは日本へ行けばよかったね。

I wish Mr. Wells had gone to Japan, don't you?

(c). ああ、もっと英語を勉強しておけばよかったなあ。

Oh, I wish I had studied English harder!

Notes

1. Verb conditionalばよかった is an idiomatic expression which means 'I wish ~ had done something.' It consists of a conditional clause with ば and よかった 'was good' and literally means 'It would have been good if ~ had done something.'

2. When there is no subject in a ば cause sentence, the first person is the implicit subject.

3. This expression is often used with exclamatory words such as ああ 'oh' and the sentence-final particle of exclamation なあ, as in Example (c).

4. "Someone (other than the first person) wishes ~ had done something" is expressed using this phrase and the verb 思う 'think', as in (1).

(⇨ いる2, Note 4; と3)

ビルは日本へ行けばよかったと思っている。
Literally: Bill thinks that it would have been good if he had gone to Japan. (= Bill wishes he had gone to Japan.)

【Related Expression】

In "Verb conditionalばよかった", Verb conditionalば expresses a counterfactual action or state in the past. In a similar expression "Verbてよかった", Verbて expresses a factual action or state in the past. Compare [1] with Example (a).

[1]

あの本を読んでよかった。
Literally: It was good that I read that book. (= I'm glad I read that book.)

Basic Page 90

㊦だい

Particle

A sentence final particle which indicates an interrogative word question in informal male speech.

【Related Expression: か2; かい】

Key Sentences

(ksa). どこが静かだい。

What place is quiet?

(ksb). 誰が行くんだい。

Who is going?

Formation

(1){Adjective な stem/ N}	だい
	静かだい	Something is quiet?
	先生だい	Someone is a teacher?
(2){V/Adjective い} informal	んだい
	{話す/話した}んだい	Someone talks/talked?
	{高い/高かった}んだい	Something is/was expensive?
(3){Adjective な stem/ N}	{なだった}んだい
	{静かな/ 静かだった}んだい	Something is/was quiet?
	{先生な/先生だった}んだい	Someone is/was a teacher?

Examples

(a). 新しい仕事はどうだい。

How's your new job

(b). あの人は誰だい。

Who is that person?

(c). 何が可笑しいんだい。

What's funny?

(d). どの人は佐藤先生なんだい。

Which person is Professor Sato?

Notes

1. だい can also be used with declarative sentences for emphasis in boys' speech, as in (1)

a. これは僕のだい。
This is mine.
b. 僕も行くんだい。
I will go, too.

2. When だい is used with interrogative sentences, the sentences must be interrogative word questions. Thus, the following sentences are ungrammatical.

a. *あの人は先生だい。
Is that person a teacher?
b. *村田さんも行くんだい。
Is Mr. Murata going，too?

For yes-no questions, かい is used.

(⇨ かい)

3. Questions with だい, as in Key Sentence (A), and those with んだい, as in Key Sentence (B), correspond to questions without のです and those with のです in formal speech, respectively.

(⇨ のだ)

4. だい actually consists of the copula だ and the particle い. Thus, it can follow only な type adjective stems, nouns and noun equivalents. The following sentences are ungrammatical because だい follows a verb or an い type adjective.

a. *だれが行くだい。
Who is going?
b. *どれがおもしろいだい。
Which one is interesting?

んだい can follow verbs and い type adjectives, as in Key Sentence (B) and Example (c), because ん is a nominalizer (the colloquial form of の3) and it changes the preceding sentence into a noun equivalent.

5. In informal male speech, questions as in (3) are expressed as in (4)，with rising intonation.

a. だれが行く？
Who is going?
b. どれがおもしろい？
Which one is interesting?

6. The past form of だい is だったい, but it is not frequently used. The more frequently used past form of だい is だった with rising intonation, as seen in (5).

a. 新しい仕事はどうだった？
How was your new job?
b. どこが静かだった？
What place was quiet?

【Related Expression】

In informal speech, the question marker か (i.e., か2) is not usually used.

The following chart summarizes the endings for informal questions.

Formal	Male, informal	Female, informal	Note
yes-no question	Sentence informalかい	Sentence informal	だ after Adjectiveな stem and ん drops
yes-no question with のです	Sentence informalのかい	Sentence informalの	だ after Adjectiveな stem and ん changes to な
Interrogative word question	Sentence informal; {Adjectiveなstem/Noun}だい	Sentence informal	だ after Adjectiveな stem and ん drops
Interrogative word question with のです	Sentence informalんだい	Sentence informalの	だ after Adjectiveな stem and ん changes to な

Sentence informalか is used in very informal speech or in vulgar speech. Female informal endings can also be used by male speakers.

Basic Page 93

㊦だけ

Particle

A particle which expresses a limit imposed upon something that is growing and expanding.	Only; just; alone; merely; that's all
【Related Expression: しか (ばかり)】

Key Sentences

(ksa). スミスさんだけ(が)来た・来ました。

Only Mr. Smith came.

(ksb). 私は日本へ一度だけ行った・行きました。

I went to Japan only once.

(ksc). 雪子さんとはデートしただけだ・です。

I just dated Yukiko, that's all.

(ksd). この家は大きいだけだ・です。

This house is big, that's all.

(kse). このお菓子は色が奇麗なだけだ・です。

This cake has pretty colours, that's all.

Formation

(i)Noun	だけ {がを}
	先生だけ{がを}	The teacher alone {subject/direct object}
(ii)N {Prt だけ/Prt だけ}	(where Prt=particles other than が, を and は)
	先生 {だけににだけ}	Only to the teacher/to the teacher alone
(iii){V/Adjective い} informal	だけ{だです}
	{話す/話した}だけ{だです}	Someone talks/talked, that's all
	{高い/ 高かった}だけ{だです}	Something is/was expensive, that's all
(iv)Adjective な stem	{なだった} だけ {だです}
	{静かな/静かだった} だけ {だです}	Something is/was quiet, that's all

Examples

(a). 佐藤さんだけ(が)会議に出ました。

Only Mr. Sato attended the conference.

(b). 小さい和英辞典だけ(を)買いました。

I bought only a small Japanese-English dictionary.

(c). 僕にだけ・だけに話して下さい。

Please tell it only to me/to me alone.

(d). この車はアルコールでだけ・だけで動きます。

This car runs only on alcohol (and nothing else)/on alcohol alone (so it needs nothing else).

(e). あの先生には一度だけ会いました。

I met that professor only once.

(f). 朝はコーヒーを一杯飲むだけです。

In the morning I just drink a cup of coffee, that's all.

(g). この本は高いだけで面白くない。

This book is just expensive and is not interesting.

(h). テニスは好きなだけで上手じゃない。

I just like tennis, and I'm not good at it.

(i). それは学生だけのパーティーだった。

It was a party for students only.

(j). 出来るだけゆっくり話して下さい。

Please speak slowly as possible.

Notes

1. When だけ modifies a preceding noun, as in Examples (a), (b), (c), and (d), the particle that is used with the noun can be positioned before or after だけ, except for the particles が, を and は, which can be optionally used only after だけ.

2. The optional positioning of the particles other than が, を and は create a subtle semantic difference. Distinctive emphasis is placed on the particle, yielding a meaning of exclusiveness in the case of Noun+Particle+だけ. No meaning of exclusiveness is implied in the case of Noun+だけ+Particle.

3. If だけ is used in:

as illustrated by Key Sentence (C), (D) and (E), だけ modifies the entire preceding part and means '~, that's all.'

Compare (1a) and (1b) below:

a. 魚だけ(を)食べた。
I ate only fish.
b. 魚を食べただけだ。
I ate fish, that's all.

In (1a) だけ modifies only the preceding noun 魚 'fish', while in (1b) だけ modifies the entire preceding part of the sentence 魚を食べた 'I ate fish.'

4. Verb (Potential)+だけ as in Example (j) means 'as much as one can ~'.

a. 食べられるだけ食べたい。
I'd like to eat as much as I can (eat).
b. 踊れるだけ踊ろう。
Let's dance as much as we can (dance).

Basic Page 97

㊦だけで(は)なく～(も)

Phrase

Not only X but also Y, where X and Y can be either a noun, a verb, and adjective.	Not only~ but also~
【Related Expression: ばかりで(は)なく~も】

Key Sentences

(ksa). あの人はよく勉強するだけで(は)なくよく遊ぶ・遊びます。

He not only studies hard, but also plays a lot.

(ksb). あの人は頭がいいだけで(は)なくよく勉強(も)する・します。

He is not only smart; he studies hard, too.

(ksc). このうちは奇麗なだけで(は)なくとても安い(です)。

This house is not only beautiful but it is also inexpensive.

(ksd). ジョンだけで(は)なくメアリーも来た・来ました。

Not only John but also Mary came here.

Formation

(i){V/Adjective い} informal	だけで(は)なく	Not only~
	{話す/話した}だけで(は)なく	Someone not only speaks/spoke~
	{高い/高かった}だけで(は)なく	Something is/was not only expensive~
(ii)Adjective な stem	{な/だった} だけで(は)なく	Not only~
	{静かな/静かだった}だけで(は)なく	Something is/was not only quiet ~
(iii)Noun	{Ø/だった}だけで(は)なく	Not only~
	{先生/ 先生だった}だけで(は)なく	Not only teachers/not only someone was a teacher

Examples

(a). あの人は小説を読むだけではなく書きます。

He not only reads novels but also writes them.

(b). ブラウンさんは日本へ行っただけではなく住んだこともあります。

Mr. Brown has not only been to Japan, but has lived there.

(c). このアパートは高いだけでなく大変狭いです。

This apartment is not only expensive but it is also very small.

(d). 幸子は頭がよかっただけではなく、とても親切でした。

Sachiko was not only bright but also very kind.

(e). この車は奇麗なだけではなく、よく走ります。

This car is not only pretty but also runs well.

(f). 日本人だけではなくアメリカ人もよく働きます。

Not only Japanese but Americans also work hard.

(g). 中村さんはアメリカやヨーロッパだけではなく東南アジアにもよく出張します。

Mr. Nakamura makes a business trip not only to America and Europe but also to Southeast Asia.

(h). ジョンソンさんは日本語だけではなく中国語も話せます。

Mr. Johnson can speak not only Japanese but also Chinese.

Notes

In "Noun ~だけで(は)なく Noun~ も", the two nouns can be followed by various particles.

[1]

手紙は友達(から)だけではなく先生からも来ました。
Letters came not only from my friends but also from my teachers.

[2]

手紙は友達(に)だけではなく先生にも書きました。
I wrote letters not only to my friends, but also to my teachers.

【Related Expression】

In the majority of cases だけ can be replaced by ばかり. When one needs to define limitation in a rigid way, however, だけ is preferable. For example:

あしたまでに十課だけ/??ばかりでなく十一課も勉強しておきなさい。
Study not only Lesson 10 but also Lesson 11 by tomorrow.

(⇨ だけ)

Basic Page 100

㊦だろう

Auxiliary

An auxiliary indicating the speaker's conjecture which is not based on any particular information or evidence.	Probably
【Related Expression: かもしれない (に違いない); ようだ (らしい, そうだ2)】

Key Sentences

(ks). アンダーソンさんは日本へ行くだろう・でしょう。

Ms. Anderson will probably go to Japan.

Formation

(1){V/Adjective い} informal	だろう
	{話す/話した}だろう	Someone will probably talk/probably talked
	{高い/高かった}だろう	Something is/was probably expensive
(2){Adjective な stem/ N}	{Øだった}だろう
	{静か/静かだった}だろう	Something is/was probably quiet
	{先生/先生だった}だろう	Someone is/was probably a teacher

Examples

(a). あのアパートは高いでしょう。

That apartment is probably expensive.

(b). ロジャーはスキーが上手だろう。

Roger is probably good at skiing.

(c). あの人は中国人だろう。

That man is probably Chinese.

Notes

1. だろう is originally the informal conjecture form of the copula だ, but it is used as an auxiliary of conjecture. The formal version is でしょう.

2. Probability adverbs such as 多分, おそらく and きっと are sometimes used with だろう or でしょう. The speaker's conjecture sounds more certain with 多分 or おそらく, and even more certain with きっと. Examples:

アンダーソンさんは多分日本へ行くだろう。
Mr. Anderson will most probably go to Japan.

アンダーソンさんはきっと日本へ行くだろう。
I'm almost certain that Mr. Anderson will go to Japan.

3. だろう/でしょう with the question marker か makes questions softer or less direct. Compare (3) and (4).

大じようぶですか。
Is it all right?

大じようぶでしょうか。
I wonder if it's all right.

4. Sentence だろう/でしょう with rising intonation asks for the hearers agreement.

a. 君も行くだろう？
You will go too, (am I) right?
b. これ，きれいでしょう？
Isn't this pretty?

The sentence-final particle ね also asks for the hearer's agreement, but Sentence だろう/でしょう with rising intonation is softer or less direct. (⇨ ね)

Compare (5a) with (6).

君も行くね。
You will go too, won't you?

Basic Page 102

㊦出す・だす

Auxiliary Verb (Group 1)

Something that has been latent is realised.	Out; begin to; start to
【Related Expression: ~始める】
【Antonym Expression: ~終わる】

Key Sentences

(ks). 車が動き出した・出しました。

The car started to move.

Formation

V ます	話し出す	Someone starts to talk
	食べ出す	Someone starts to eat

Examples

(a). 急に雨が降り出した。

Suddenly it began to rain.

(b). 一歳になって初めて歩き出した。

He started to walk only after he became a year old.

(c). そのアイディアは誰が考え出したんですか。

Who thought out that idea?

(d). 一時間ぐらいかけてとうとうその本屋を探し出した。

After spending about an hour, I finally located that bookstore.

Notes

1. 出す in Verbます+出す is used as an auxiliary verb. When it is used as a full verb, it means 'cause something to become visible'.

2. Verbます+出す is normally ambiguous; one meaning is '~ out' and the other is 'begin to ~'. Thus, 作り出す means 'turn out' or 'begin to make'.

3. Verbます+出す conjugates as a Group 1 verb.

	⎧さない	informal, negative, nonpast
	⎪します	formal, nonpast
話し出	⎪す	informal, nonpast
	⎨せば	conditional
食べ出	⎪そう	volitional
	⎪して	て form
	⎩した	informal, past

4. Verbます+終わる 'finish ~ing' is an antonym of Verbます+出す/始める.

【Related Expression】

出す in the sense of 'begin to ~' is different from 始める in that the former indicates a non-volitional and abrupt beginning while the latter is more broadly used. Thus,

[1]

そろそろ歩き始めましょう/*歩き出しましょうか。
It's getting late. Shall we begin to walk?

[2]

私達が歩き始めた/歩き出した時山田逹が来た。
When we started to walk, Yamada and his company came.

[3]

どうしてか分からなかったが、男は急におこり出した/??おこリ始めた。
I don't know why, but the man suddenly started to get angry.

Basic Page 105

㊦で (1)

Particle

A particle which indicates location, except for location of existence.	At; in; on
【Related Expression: に4; に6; を2】

Key Sentences

(ks). 私達は喫茶店でコーヒーを飲んだ・飲みました。

We drank coffee at a coffee shop.

Examples

(a). ゆり子はデパートで働いています。

Yuriko is working at a department store.

(b). オーストラリアでは十二月は夏だ。

In Australia it is summer in December.

(c). 島崎さんは日本では元気でした。

Mr. Shimazaki was healthy in Japan.

(d). ヘレンは始めて舞台で歌った。

Helen sang on the stage for the first time.

Notes

で1 cannot be used to indicate location of existence. (⇨ に6) However, if the existential verb ある '(inanimate things) exist' occurs with an event, で is used, as in (1).

a. 今晚ジムの家で/*にパーティーがあります。
There's a party at Jim's tonight.
b. きのうこの部屋で/*にプライス先生の講演があった。
We had Prof. Price's lecture in this room yesterday.

Basic Page 106

㊦で (2)

Particle

A particle which indicates the use of something for doing something.	By; for; from; in; on; using; with
【Related Expression: を使って】

Key Sentences

(ks). 宮本さんは毎日バスで会社へ行く・行きます。

Mr. Miyamoto goes to his company by bus everyday.

Examples

(a). 日本人は箸でご飯を食べる。

Japanese people eat rice with chopsticks.

(b). 私達は日本語で話した。

We talked in Japanese.

(c). 私はその映画をテレビで見ました。

I saw the movie on TV.

(d). 豆腐は大豆で作ります。

We make toufu from soybeans.

(e). ラリーはこの椅子を十ドルで買った。

Larry bought this chair for ten dollars.

(f). ベッツィーはそのレポートを一日で書いたそうだ。

I heard that Betsy wrote the report in one day.

Notes

1. In general, で2 indicates something which is used when someone or something does something. Typically, it indicates means and instruments as in Key Sentence and Exsamples (a) ~ (c).

2. Since で also indicates reason and cause, the phrase 何で, which consists of なん 'what' and で, is ambiguous: One meaning is 'by means of what (= how)' and the other is 'for what reason (= why)'. Thus, (1) can be interpreted in two ways.

本田さんは何で大阪へ行くんですか。
How/Why is Mr. Honda going to Osaka?

【Related Expression】

で2 can be used instead of the phrase を使って 'by using ~', except the preceding noun refers to a human being. Examples:

[1]

私達はタクシーを使って/で来ました。
We came by taxi.

[2]

私は子供を使って/*で家具を動かした。
Literally: I moved the furniture using my children.

Basic Page 107

㊦で (3)

Particle

A particle (apparently derived from the て form of です) that indicates a weak causal relationship.	And; because of; due to; because
【Related Expression: から3; ので】

Key Sentences

(ks). 山口さんは病気で学校を休んだ・休みました。

Because Mr. Yamaguchi was ill, he didn't come to school.

Examples

(a). 明日は期末試験で大変です。

I'm having an awful time because of tomorrow's final exam.

(b). 大雨で橋が壊れた。

Heavy rain destroyed the bridge.

(c). 昨日は夜、仕事でとても疲れた。

Because of my work I got very tired last night.

(d). 父は交通事故で入院しました。

My father was hospitalised due to a traffic accident.

Notes

1. Some of the uses of で3 (such as Key Sentence and Example (a)) are very close to the て form of です. For example, Key Sentence can be paraphrased into two sentences (1a) and (1b):

a. 山口さんは病気でした。
Mr. Yamaguchi was ill.
b. 山口さんは学校を休みました。
Mr. Yamaguchi was absent from school.

And Key Sentence can be considered to be the result of combining the two sentences using the て form of です which basically means 'be ~and'.

2. A noun that precedes で3 expresses something that is beyond human control (such as illness, flood, accident, rain, and fire). It is also to be noted that で3 co-occurs with any noun, if a predicate expresses something that is beyond human control. If the co-occurring predicate expresses something that is controllable, the particle で is no longer で3; it is で2 of means. (⇨ で2) Compare (2a) and (2b) below:

a. 卵でアレルギーになる。
Literally: Eggs cause me allergy. (= I'm allergic to eggs.)
b. 卵でオムレツを作る。
I make an omelette with eggs.

(2a) and (2b) contain a noncontrollable predicate アレルギーになる 'become allergic' and a controllable predicate オムレツを作る 'make an omelette', respectively. Therefore, で in (2a) and (2b) are で3 and で2, respectively.

【Related Expression】

The particle で3 is a very loose marker of cause due to its origin; in contrast, から3 and ので are clear subordinate conjunctions of cause/reason.

(⇨ から3; ので)

Basic Page 109

㊦で (4)

Particle

A particle which indicates the time when something terminates or the amount of time a period of activity has taken.	At; on; in
【Related Expression: に1】

Key Sentences

(ks). 春学期は五月十日で終わる・終わります。

The spring term ends on May 10.

Examples

(a). このコンサートは十時で終わります。

This concert will be over at ten o'clock.

(b). 私のパスポートは六月で切れる。

My passport expires in June.

(c). アメリカに来てから今日で三年になる。

It's been three years since I came to America.

Notes

1. In general, Xで4 indicates that something lasts for a period of time up to X.

2. When X in Xで refers to a duration of time, as in (1), it is the で of means rather than the で of termination time.

(⇨ で2)

山田さんは一週間でそのレポートを書いた。
Mr. Yamada wrote the report in a week (literally: using a week).

【Related Expression】

に1 can be used in place of で4 in Key Sentence and Examples (a) and (b), as in [1].

[1]

春学期は五月十日で/に終わる。
The spring term ends on May 10.

When で is used, the nuance is that the spring term lasts up to May 10. When に is used, however, the sentence simply indicates the time when the spring term ends.

★Semantic derivations of で

Basic Page 111

㊦でも

Particle

The て form of です plus も 'even'.

Key Sentences

(ksa). 先生でも間違う・間違います。

Even a teacher makes mistakes.

(ksb). 私は難しい仕事でもする・します。

I will even do a difficult job.

(ksc). ここからでも富士山が見える・見えます。

Even from here you can see Mt. Fuji.

Formation

(i)Noun	でも
先生が (subject) →	先生でも	Even a teacher
先生を (object) →	先生でも	Even a teacher
(ii)Noun+Particle	でも
	先生とでも	Even with a teacher
	東京からでも	Even from Tokyo

Examples

(a). 子供でもそんなことは分かりますよ。

Even a child can understand that sort of thing.

(b). お会いしたいんですが、日曜日でも構いませんか。

I'd like to see you, but it is all right to see you even on Sunday?

(c). あの人は魚でも肉でも食べます。

He eats anything, whether it be fish or meat.

Notes

1. Interrogative word+でも yields the following meaning depending on which Interrogative word is used.

誰でも	no matter who it is; anyone
何でも	no matter what it is; anything
いつでも	no matter when; any time
どこでも	no matter where it is; any place
どれでも	no matter which it is

あの図書館は誰でも入れます。
Anyone can enter that library.

いつでもかまいませんよ。
Any time will be fine.

2. The particle でも should not be confused with the particle combination で+も as in (1) below where で is a particle of location (=で1), and in (2) where で is a particle of means (=で2).

日本でもインフレが大きな問題になっている。
In Japan, too, inflation is a big problem.

そこはパスでも行けますか。
Can you also get there by bus?

(⇨ で1; で2)

Basic Page 114

㊦どう

Adverb

An interrogative adverb which asks about the state of someone/something or the way of doing something.

How; in what way

Key Sentences

(ks). お母さんさんはどう(ですか)。

How's your mother?

Examples

(a). 新しいアパートはどうですか。

How's your new apartment?

(b). コーヒーはどうですか。

How is the coffee?/Would you like coffee?/How about coffee?

(c). 土曜日はどう？

How about Saturday?

Notes

1. The polite version of どう is いかが. In very informal speech ですか is omitted after どう or いかが.

2. どう and いかが are also used to offer or suggest something, as in Examples (b) and (c). In this case, どう or いかが are asking about the state of the hearer's mind regarding the offer or suggestion rather than about the state of what is being offered or suggested.

3. どう is also used to ask the way of doing something. In this case, いかが is usually not used. Example:

この言葉はどう読みますか。
How do you read this word?

4. The idiomatic expression どうして 'literally: doing what' is used to ask manners, reasons or causes. Examples:

どうして日本語を勉強しているんですか。
How (= In what way) are you studying Japanese?/Why are you studying Japanese?

この木はどうして枯れたんですか。
Why did this tree die?

As seen in (2), unless the context is clear, どうして is sometimes ambiguous. (The interrogative adverb なぜ 'why' is unambiguous but less colloquial than どうして.)

Basic Page 116

㊦へ

Particle

A particle that indicates the direction toward which some directional movement or action proceeds.	To; towards
【Related Expression: まで; に4; に7】

Key Sentences

(ks). 私は先週京都へ旅行に行った・行きました。

I went on a trip to Kyoto last week.

Examples

(a). 私は札幌のうちへ飛行機で帰った。

I went back home to Sapporo by plane.

(b). 地震だったのでいそいで外へ出た。

It was an earthquake, so I went outside quickly.

(c). 父へ手紙を出したが、まだ返事が来ない。

I sent a letter to my father, but his reply has not come yet.

Notes

【Related Expressions】

I. The particles へ, まで, and に7 focus on direction, course (up to ~), and point of contact, respectively. Thus,

[1]

はるばる東京まで/?に/?へ来た。
I came all the way to Tokyo.

[2]

東京に/へ/*まで十二時に着いた。
I arrived in Tokyo at 12:00 o'clock.

[3]

ニューヨークへ/まで/*にの便はもうありません。
There isn't any flight to/as far as New York any more.

[4]

ここまで/*へ/*にの道は悪かったでしょう。
Your way here must have been rough.

In actuality, native speakers use へ and に7 (of point of contact) almost interchangeably except in the case of [3] (i.e., に cannot be followed by の).

II. Even the に4 of direct contact meaning 'into; onto' can be replaced by へ as in:

[5]

お風呂に/へ入った。
Literally: I entered into a bath. (= I took a bath.)

[6]

机の上に/へ乗った。
I got onto the table.

[7]

黒板に/へ漢字を書いた。
I wrote kanji on the blackboard.

Basic Page 118

㊦が (1)

Particle

A particle which indicates the subject.

【Related Expression: は1】

Key Sentences

(ks). 雨が降っている・います。

Rain is falling.

Examples

(a). 私の部屋にはステレオがあります。

There is a stereo in my room.

(b). あ、のり子が走っている。

Oh, Noriko is running.

(c). A:このレストランは何が美味しいですか。B:ステーキが美味しいです。

A: What is good in this restaurant? B: Steak is good.

Notes

1. が marks the subject of a sentence when the information expressed by the subject is first introduced in a discourse. When the subject is presented as the topic (that is, the information has already been introduced into the discourse), however, the topic marker は replaces が. (⇨ は1) Consider the following discourse, a typical opening in folktales, which illustrates the different uses of が and は.

昔々一人のおじいさんが住んでいました。おじいさんはとても貧乏でした。
Once upon a time there lived an old man. He (literally: the old man) was very poor.

In the first sentence, おじいさん 'old man' appears for the first time in the discourse; おじいさん is the subject but not the topic in this sentence. Therefore, it is marked by が. The second sentence tells something about the old man introduced in the first sentence. おじいさん is now the topic; therefore, it is marked by は rather than が. Note the parallelism here between が and は in Japanese and 'a' and 'the' in English.

2. が is also replaced by は if the subject is in contrast with another element. For example, in Example (c), B could also say:

ステーキは美味しいです。
Steak is good (but other food is not)./(I don't know about other food but at least) Steak is good.

Here, ステーキ 'steak' is newly introduced in the discourse and is not the topic; yet it is marked by は. This is because ステーキ, in this case, is being contrasted with other food.

3. Since Interrogative words like 何 'what', 誰 'who' and どこ 'what place' can never be topics, they are never marked by は, as in (3).

今晩誰が/*は来ますか。
Who is coming tonight?

4. The subject in subordinate clauses is marked by が unless it is a contrasted element, as seen in (4).

a. 私はデビーが/*はフランスへ行くことを知らなかった。
I didn't know that Debbie was going to France.
b. ジーンは僕が/*はアパートを出た時まだ寝ていた。
Gene was still in bed when I left my apartment.
c. 私が/*はきのう見た映画はドイツの映画だった。
The movie I saw yesterday was a German film.

Note that topics are not presented in subordinate clauses.

3. In relative clauses, the subject may be marked by の, as in (5).

(⇨ Relative Clause, Note 3)

私のきのう見た映画はドイツの映画だった。
The movie I saw yesterday was a German film.

6. In some expressions, elements which are considered to be direct objects are presented as subjects and are marked by が.

(⇨ は~が)

a.僕はスポーツカーが欲しい。
I want a sports car. (Literally: To me, a sports car is desirable.)
b.春子はスペイン語が分かる。
Haruko understands Spanish. (Literally: To Haruko, Spanish is understandable.)

7. To sum up the important rules concerning が,

(A) が marks the subject when it is newly introduced in a discourse.
(B) は replaces が when the subject is a topic or a contrasted element.
(C) Interrogative words are always marked by が when they are the subject of a sentence.
(D) The subject in subordinate clauses is marked by が unless it is a contrasted element.
(E) When predicates are transitive adjectives or stative transitive verbs, the elements which correspond to the direct object in English are marked by が.

【Related Expression】

The topic marker は is often mistaken for a subject marker. It appears to be a subject marker because it often replaces が.

(⇨ は1)

Basic Page 120

㊦が (2)

Conjunction

A disjunctive coordinate conjunction that combines two sentences.	But
【Related Expression: だが; だけど; でも; けれども; しかし】

Key Sentences

(ks). ジョンは来た・来ましたがメアリーは来なかった・来ませんでした。

John came but Mary didn't (come).

Formation

S1 がS2

太郎は泳いだが次郎は泳がなかった。

Taro swam but Jiro didn't swim.

Examples

(a). 私はビールは飲むが酒は飲まない。

I drink beer but don't drink sake.

(b). 旅行をしたいがお金がない。

I want to travel but I don't have the money.

Notes

1. が2, like 'but' in English, combines two sentences which express contrastive ideas. However, が is much weaker than 'but' in that it is sometimes used simply to combine two sentences for stylistic reasons even if those two sentences do not represent contrastive ideas. For example, the が in (1) is used simply as a transition word to connect two sentences.

a. パーティーをしますが来ませんか。
We'll have a party. Wouldn't you like to come?
b. 田中さんは私のうちにも時々来ますがおもしろい人ですね。
Mr. Tanaka sometimes comes to my place, too. He is an interesting person, isn't he?

2. が2 makes a sentence unit with the preceding sentence, not with the following sentence. Thus, it is wrong to place a comma before が or to start a sentence with が, as in (2) and (3).

*ジョンは来た，がメアリーは来なかった。
John came, but Mary didn't come.

*ジョンは来た。がメアリーは来なかった。
John came. But Mary didn't come.

3. Sentence1 and Sentence2 in "Sentence1がSentence2" must be in the same form whether formal or informal, because they are both independent clauses. (4) and (5) are stylistically awkward.

(⇨ けれども)

??太郎は泳ぎましたが次郎は泳がなかった。
Taro swam but Jiro didn't (swim).

??太郎は泳いだが次郎は泳ぎませんでした。
Taro swam but Jiro didn't (swim).

4. Sentence2 in "Sentence1がSentence2" is often omitted when it is understandable from the context and/or the situation, or when the speaker doesn't want to continue for some reason (e.g., the sentence is too direct, impolite, embarrassing，etc.). Examples:

大じょうぶだと思いますが。
I think it's all right but...

トムはよく勉強するんですが。
Tom studies hard but...

5. When "Sentence1がSentence2" expresses contrastive ideas, the contrastive は typically appears in Sentence1 and Sentence2 as in Key Sentence and Example (a).

(⇨ は1)

【Related Expressions】

だが, だけど, でも, しかし and けれども express the same idea as が. However, the first four cannot make compound sentences like が does; they must occur at the beginning of a sentence, as in [1].

(See Note 2.)

[1]

a. Sentence1がSentence2.
b. *Sentence1だが/だけど/でも/しかしSentence2.
c. Sentence1。だが/だけど/でも/しかしSentence2.

けれども differs from が in that けれども is a subordinate conjunction meaning 'although'. That is, in "Sentence1けれどもSentence2", Sentence1けれども is a subordinate clause and Sentence2 is a main clause. In "Sentence1がSentence2", on the other hand, both Sentence1 and Sentence2 are independent clauses.

Basic Page 123

㊦がる

Auxiliary Verb (Group 1)

An auxiliary verb attached to a psychological/physiological adjective meaning a person other than the speaker shows signs of~

Show signs of~

Key Sentences

(ksa). 一男はスポーツカーを欲しがった・がりました。

Kazuo showed signs of wanting a sports car.

(ksb). 上田さんはアイスクリームを食べたがった・がりました。

Mr Uedo showed signs of wanting to eat ice cream.

Formation

Adjective い/な stem	がる
	うれしがる	Someone shows signs of being glad
	めんどうがる	Someone shows signs of being bothered

Examples

(a). スーザンは一人で淋しがっています。

Susan feels lonely by herself.

(b). 子供が眠たがっている。

My child wants to go to sleep.

Notes

1. There is a group of adjectives which, in the present tense, usually requires the first person (or a person with whom the speaker can empathize) as subject. If the subject of a sentence in which these adjectives occur is not the first person (or one with whom the speaker can empathize), then がる is attached to the adjective. Observe the accompanying change of particles from が into を.

a. 僕は犬がこわい。
Literally: To me dogs are scary, (= I am scared of dogs.)
b.深田さんは犬をこわがっている。
Mr, Fukada fears dogs.

a. 僕はスポーツカーが欲しい。
I want a sports car.
b. 一男はスポーツカーを欲しがっている。
Kazuo wants a sports car.

If an adjective appears in an embedded clause (except a nominalized clause), the がる attachment is unnecessary even if the tense is nonpast and the subject is a person with whom the speaker cannot empathize. Thus,

a. 深田さんは犬がこわいと言った。
Mr. Fukada said that he is scared of dogs.
b.—男はスポーツカーが欲しいそうだ。
I heard that Kazuo wants a sports car.

(⇨ 欲しい, Note 3)

がる conjugates as a Group 1 verb. Thus,

	⎧らない	informal, negative, nonpast
	⎢ります	formal, nonpast
	⎢る	informal, nonpast
欲しが	⎨れば	conditional
	⎢ろう	volitional
	⎢って	て form
	⎩ った	informal, past

3. The following psychological and physiological adjectives are commonly used with がる.

Psychology
Adjectiveい
欲しい	want	欲しがる
嬉しい	happy	嬉しがる
淋しい	lonely	淋しがる
たい	want to	たがる
怖い	scary	怖がる
羨ましい	envious	羨ましがる
面白い	amusing	面白がる
Physiology
Adjectiveい
痛い	painful	痛がる
苦しい	painful	苦しがる
かゆい	itchy	かゆがる
寒い	cold	寒がる
暑い	hot	暑がる
だるい	languid	だるがる
くすぐったい	ticklish	くすぐったがる
Adjectiveな
迷惑だ	troublesome	迷惑がる
いやだ	dislike	いやがる

4. A limited number of がる forms have derived noun forms. The form is がり(屋), meaning 'a person who shows signs of being ~'.

(⇨ や)

淋しがり屋
a person who always feels lonely
こわがり屋
a person who is easily frightened
寒がり屋
a person who is sensitive to cold
暑がり屋
a person who is sensitive to heat

Basic Page 126

㊦ごろ

Suffix

Approximately (with a specific point of time).	About; around
【Related Expression: くらい/ぐらい】

Key Sentences

(ks). 鈴木さんは朝七時ごろうちを出る・出ます。

Mr. Suzuki leaves home at about 7:00 o'clock in the morning.

Formation

Noun (time)	ごろ(に)
	三時ごろ(に)	At about 3 o'clock

Examples

(a). A:いつごろ北京に行きますか。 B:来年の六月ごろ行きます。

A: About when are you going to Beijing? B: I'm going there around June of next year.

(b). A:今朝は何時ごろまで寝ていましたか。 B:十時ごろまで寝ていました。

A: Until about what time were you asleep this morning? B: I was asleep until about 10 o'clock.

(c). 去年の今ごろは大雪でしたね。

About this time last year it snowed heavily, didn't it?

Notes

1. ごろ is used with a specific point of time. Thus, the following sentence is unacceptable.

*夜ごろテレビを見ていました。
*I was watching TV about at night.

2. Depending on the speaker's perspective, time expressions other than exact time expressions can be perceived as points in time. Thus, in Example (a), the month of June is a point in time from the speaker's viewpoint. In these cases, ごろ seems easier to use grammatically if there is some distance between the time of the event and the time of speech, as seen in the following examples.

??来年の夏ごろ山中さんに会います。
*I will see Mr. Yamanaka around next summer.

再来年の夏ごろ山中さんに会います。
I will see Mr. Yamanaka in the summer in a couple of years.

??去年の夏ごろ山中さんに会いました。
*I met Mr. Yamanaka around the summer of last year.

おととしの夏ごろ山中さんに会いました。
I met Mr. Yamanaka sometime during the summer of the year before last.

【Related Expression】

ごろ is different from くらい/ぐらい 'about' in that the latter is used with specific quantity expressions. Thus,

[1]

僕は三時ごろに寝ました。
I went to sleep at about 3 o'clock.

[2]

僕は三時間ぐらい寝ました。
I slept about three hours.

Basic Page 128

㊦ごとに

Particle

Something takes place regularly in succession after a certain temporal or spatial interval.	Every
【Related Expression: まい; おきに】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 私は三時間ごとに薬を飲んだ・飲みました。

I took medicine every three hours.

(ksb). 正月は家ごとに門松を立てる・立てます。

They put up pine tree decorations at every house on New Year's Day.

Examples

(a). 一課ごとに試験がある。

There is a test after every lesson.

(b). 学期ごとに先生が変わる。

Every semester teachers change.

(c). 木村さんは会う人ごとに挨拶している。

Mr. Kimura greets everyone he meets.

(d). 三日ごとにテニスをしています。

I'm playing tennis every third day.

Notes

【Related Expression】

おきに indicates that something is repeated at certain intervals. Although its usage is comparable to ごとに, note the distinct difference in meanings in examples [1a] and [1b].

[1]

a. この電車はニ駅おきに止まる。
This train stops at every third station.
b. この電車はニ駅ごとに止まる。
This train stops at every other station.

When a time expression precedes おきに or ごとに, there is no difference in meaning, if an event takes place at one point in time as in [2a]. But there is difference in meaning, if an event takes place within a certain period of time as in [2b].

[2]

a. 電車は五分おきに/ごとに出る。
The train leaves every five minutes.
b. 私は二日おきに/ごとに花子と会っている。
I'm seeing Hanako every third day/every other day.

Basic Page 131

㊦始める・はじめる

Auxiliary Verb (Group 2)

Someone/something begins to do something or begins to be in some state.	Begin to
【Related Expression: ~出す; 来る2】
【Antonym Expression: ~終わる】

Key Sentences

(ks). 明日からレポートを書き始める・始めます。

I'll begin to write my paper tomorrow.

Formation

Vます	はじめる
	話しはじめる	Someone begins to talk
	食べはじめる	Someone begins to eat

Examples

(a). 私は八月から源氏物語を読み始めました。

I began to read The Tale of Genji in August.

(b). 日本の経済は１９６４年の東京オリンピックのころから強くなり始めた。

The Japanese economy began to strengthen about the time of the 1964 Tokyo Olympics.

(c). A:いつから切手を集め始めたんですか。 B:子供の時から集め始めました。

A: When did you start to collect stamps? B: I started to collect them (literally: since) I was a child.

Notes

1. Verbます始める conjugates exactly like the Group 2 Verb 始める.

ない	informal, negative, nonpast
ます	formal, nonpast
話しはじめ	る	informal, nonpast
食べはじめ	れば	conditional
よう	volitional
た	て form
た	informal, past

2. For the sentence (1) below, there are two honorific versions, depending on which part of Verbます始める is changed into an honorific form; if the Verbます is changed into an honorific form, it will become (2a) and if the entire Verbます始める is changed into an honorific form, it will become (2b).

先生は本を書きはじめた。
The teacher began to write a book.

a. 先生はご本をお書きになりはじめた。
b. 先生はご本をお書きはじめになった。

(⇨ お~になる)

3. 始める is normally attached to a non punctual verb (such as 読む 'read', 書く 'write' and 見る 'see'). If the subject is plural, however, the verb can be a punctual verb (such as 着く 'arrive', 来る 'come' and 死ぬ 'die'). Thus,

上田さんは新聞を読みはじめました。
Mr. Ueda began to read a newspaper.

人々/*花子が会場に着きはじめました。
People/*Hanako began to arrive at the meeting room.

Basic Page 133

㊦はず

Noun

A dependant noun which expresses the speaker's expectation that something will take place or took place or that someone/something is or was in some state.

I expect that~; it is expected that~; ~is expected to; I am fairly certain that~; should; ought to; it is natural that~; no wonder~

Key Sentences

(ks). クラークさんはパーティーに行くはずだ・です。

I expect that Mr. Clark will go to the party.

Formation

(1){V/Adjectiveい} informal	はずだ
	{話す /話した}はずだ	It is expected that someone will talk/talked.
	{高い /高かった}はずだ	It is expected that something is/was expensive.
(2)Adjective な stem	[なだった]はずだ
	{静かな/静かだった}はずだ	It is expected that something is/was quiet.
(3)Noun	{のだった}はずだ
	{先生の /先生だった} はずだ	It is expected that s.o. is/was a teacher

Examples

(a). 大野先生はサンドラを知っているはずです。

I expect that Professor Ono knows Sandra.

(b). あの本は高かったはずだ。

I expect that book was expensive.

(c). そのアパートは奇麗なはずです。

I expect that apartment is clean.

(d). カールソンさんは昔先生だったはずだ。

I'm fairly sure that Ms. Carlson was a teacher before.

Notes

1. "Sentenceはず" expresses the speakers expectation, not in the sense of hoping or looking forward to something, but in the sense that the proposition expressed by Sentence should be true or come true. Thus, when the speaker uses はず he is not merely guessing, but stating a proposition based on reliable information or knowledge.

(⇨ だろう; らしい; そうだ2; ようだ)

2. はず is a dependent noun and cannot be used alone. It is always modified by a sentence or a demonstrative such as その 'that' and こんな 'like this'. "Demonstrative はず" is used when a proposition is known to the hearer from the context, as in (1).

A: マーサも来ますか。
Is Martha coming, too?
B: はい、そのはずです。
Yes, I expect so.

3. Negative expectations can be expressed in two ways:

(A) Sentence (negative) はずだ

クラークさんはパーティーに行かないはずだ。
Literally: I expect that Mr. Clark is not going to the party.
(= I don't expect that Mr. Clark is going to the party.)

(B) Sentenceはずは/がない

クラークさんはパーティーに行くはずは/がない。
Literally: I have no expectation that Mr. Clark is going to the party.
(= It is improbable that Mr. Clark will go to the party.)

The assertion in (3) is stronger than that in (2).

4. "Sentenceはず" can also be used when the speaker has discovered the reason for an event or a state. In this case, はず means "It is natural that ~." or "No wonder ~." and can be paraphrased as "Sentenceわけだ." (⇨ わけだ) Example:

高いはずだ。これは金だ。
No wonder this is expensive. It's gold.

5. When "Sentenceはず" modifies a noun, that is, when "Sentenceはず" is a relative clause, の follows, as in (5).

(⇨ Relative Clause)

山口さんに出したはずの手紙が床に落ちていた。
I found the letter I thought I had sent to Mr. Yamaguchi on the floor.

Basic Page 135

㊦ほど

Particle

A particle which indicates an extent or a degree to which someone/something does something or is in some state.	To the extent of; to the extent that~; (not as)~ as~; about
【Related Expression: ばかり; くらい】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 私はケンほど強くない・強くありません。

I'm not as strong as Ken.

(ksb). この仕事は子共でも出来るほど易しい・易しいです。

This job is so easy that even a child can do it.

Formation

(i)Noun	ほど
	君ほど	As you
(ii)Demonstrative	ほど
	それほど	To that extent
(iii)Sinformal	ほど
	家が倒れるほど	To the extent that houses would fall down

Examples

(a). 僕は君ほど速く歩けません。

I can't walk as fast as you can.

(b). ジェニファーほどよく勉強する学生はいない。

There is no student who studies as hard as Jennifer.

(c). 私は西田さんがあれほどピアノが弾けるとは思わなかった。

I didn't think that Mr. Nishida could play the piano that well.

(d). ルイスさんの日本語は太田先生も外国人だと気づかなかったほど上手です。

Mr. Lewis' Japanese is so good that even Professor Ota didn't notice he was a foreigner.

Notes

1. When ほど is preceded by a noun, the predicate must be negative, as in Key Sentence (A), Examples (a) and (b). The following sentences are ungrammatical.

*私は太郎ほど強い。
I am as strong as Taro.

*フットボールほど面白いスポーツはたくさんある。
There are many sports which are as interesting as football.

If a sentence or a demonstrative modifies ほど, however, the predicate of the main clause can be either affirmative or negative, as in Key Sentence (B), Example (d) and (3).

その仕事はそれほどやさしいんですか。
Is that job that easy (literally: easy to that extent)?

2. When ほど is used with a quantifier, it means 'about'. Example:

ビールを三本ほど飲みました。
I drank about three bottles of beer.

【Related Expressions】

ばかり and くらい also mean 'about' when they are used with a number and a counter. The difference among the three is that ばかり and ほど can be used with an exact number or amount of something, whereas くらい cannot, as seen in [1].

[1]

そのりんごをニつばかり/ほど/*くらいください。
Please give me two of those apples.

In the situation in [1] the speaker does not want about two apples but exactly two apples, and, in this case, くらい cannot be used. It is a very common practice in Japanese to avoid asking for exact numbers or amounts, and the practice comes from the idea that being straightforward or direct is impolite. This can be observed in many verbal and nonverbal expressions in Japanese and also in the manners of the Japanese people.

Basic Page 138

㊦ほうがいい

Phrase

It is strongly suggested that someone do something.	Had better do something
【Related Expression: たらどうですか】

Key Sentences

(ks). 日本語の本を読んだほうがいいです。

You'd better read Japanese books.

Formation

Vinformal past	ほうがいい
	話したほうがいい	Had better talk
	食べたほうがいい	Had better eat

Examples

(a). 野菜も食べたほうがいいよ。

You'd better eat vegetables, too.

(b). もう帰ったほうがいいですか。

Had I better go home now?

Notes

1. Verb informal past ほうがいい is an idiomatic expression of the comparative structure and expresses a strong suggestion.

(⇨ ほうが~より)

2. The second person subject in declarative sentences and the first person subject in interrogative sentences are usually omitted. (Key Sentence and Examples (a) and (b)) When the subject is the third person, it is not omitted unless it can be clearly understood from the context. In this case, the speaker is telling the hearer what the speaker suggests for the third person. (Example (c))

3. Verb informal nonpast can be substituted for Verb informal past, as in (1).

日本語の本を読むほうがいい。
You'd better read Japanese books.

The meaning of Verb informal nonpast ほうがいい is almost the same as that of Verb informal past ほうがいい if it is used in situations of suggestion. However, Verb informal past ほうがいい may express a stronger suggestion than Verb informal nonpast ほうがいい. For instance, in the following example, Verb informal past ほうがいい is more appropriate.

お前、このごろ麻薬をやってるそうだな。そんなもの止めた/??止めるほうがいいぜ。
I heard you are taking drugs these days. You'd better stop such things, I tell you.

4. "Had better not do something" is expressed by Verb negative ないほうがいい. Example:

コーヒーを飲まないほうがいい。
You'd better not drink coffee.

Note that the verb must be in the nonpast negative form in this expression. The following is ungrammatical.

*コーヒーを飲まなかったほうがいい。
You'd better not drink coffee.

Basic Page 140

㊦ほうが~より

Phrase

Comparing two entities, one is in some state or does something more than the other.	~be more (adjective) than~; ~do something more (adverb) than~ do
【Related Expression: より】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 石田さんのほうが私より若い・若いです。

Mr. Ishida is younger than I am.

(ksb). 私のほうが上田さんよりよく食べる・食べます。

I eat more than Ms. Ueda does.

(ksc). 車で行くほうがバスで行くより安い・安いです。

Going by car is cheaper than going by bus.

Formation

(i)Noun	のほうがNounより
	先生のほうが学生より	Teachers are more~ than studens
(ii){V/Adjective い} informal	ほうが {V/Adjective い} informal nonpastより
	{話す /話した}ほうが聞くより	Talking/having talked is more~; than hearing
	{食べる /食べた}ほうが寝るより	Eating/having eaten is more~; than sleeping
	{高い /高かった}ほうが安いより	Being/having been expensive is more~; than being cheap
(iii)Adjective な stem	{なだった}ほうが Adjective な stemなより
	{なだった}ほうがなより	Being/having been quiet is more~; than being pretty
(iv)Noun	{であるだった}ほうが;Nounであるより
	{先生である/先生だった}ほうが学生であるより	Being/having been a teacher is more~; than being a student

Examples

(a). このカメラのほうがあのカメラより好きです。

I like this camera better than that camera.

(b). ジェフのほうが私より速く走れる。

Jeff can run faster than I can.

(c). 私が話すほうが君が話すよりいいでしょう。

It's probably better for me to talk than for you to talk.

(d). もちろん、安いほうが高いより嬉しいです。

Of course, I'm happier when it is cheap than when it is expensive.

(e). 子供は元気なほうが静かなより安心だ。

Talking about children, you feel more at ease when they are lively than when they are quiet.

(f). 私は女であるほうが男であるより楽しいと思う。

I think it's more enjoyable to be a woman than to be a man.

Notes

1. In Japanese there are no comparative forms of adjectives and adverbs. The idea of comparison is expressed by the "XのほうがYより" pattern. Yより may be omitted if it is clear from the context or the situation. Example:

A: トムとジョンとどちらが強いですか。
Who is stronger, Tom or John?
B: トムのほうが(ジョンより)強いです。
Tom is stronger (than John).

2. In the "Sentence1ほうがSentence2より" pattern (Key Sentence (B)), Sentence1 can be either nonpast or past. Sentence2, however, is always nonpast regardless of the tense of Sentence1 and the main clause. There are two cases in which Sentence1 is past. First, Senence1 can be past when the whole sentence is about a present or future action or state. In this case, the sentence sounds rather hypothetical. Example:

私が話したほうが君が話すよりいいでしょう。
It would probably be better if I talk rather than if you talk.

Sentence1 can also be past if the whole sentence is about a past action or state, in this case the sentence is counterfactual. Example:

私が話したほうが君が話すよりよかった。
It would have been better if I had talked rather than you.

3. Yより can precede X(の)ほうが, as in (4).

あのカメラよりこのカメラのほうが好きです。
I like this camera better than that camera.

4. Xのほう is a noun phrase; therefore, it can also be a direct object, an indirect object, etc. However, when it is used for something other than the subject, the "YよりXのほう(を, に, etc.)" order is preferable. Examples:

a. 私はビールより酒のほうをよく飲む。
I drink sake more than beer.
b. 学生は川田先生より木村先生のほうによく質問に行く。
Students go to Professor Kimura to ask questions more often than to Professor Kawada.

【Related Expression】

The idea of comparison can be expressed by the "XはYより" pattern, too. (⇨ より) However, when this pattern is used, X must have already been established as a topic. Thus, in a context like [1], the "XはYより" pattern cannot be used.

[1]

A: トムとジョンとどちらが強いですか。
Who is stronger, Tom or John?
B: トムのほうが/*トムは(ジョンより)強いです。
Tom is stronger (than John).

On the other hand, in a context like [2], the "XはYより" pattern is preferable, because X has already been established in the previous sentence.

[2]

トムはとても強いです。彼は/??彼のほうがジョンより強いです。
Tom is very strong. He is stronger than John.

Basic Page 144

㊦欲しい・ほしい (1)

Something is desired by the speaker.	Want (something)
【Related Expression: たい】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 私は車が欲しいです。

I want a car.

(ksb). 弟は僕の自転車を欲しがっている・います。

My little brother wants my bike.

Examples

(a). 私は日本人の友達が欲しい。

I want a Japanese friend.

(b). あなたは今何が欲しいですか。

What do you want now?

(c). パムはステレオを欲しがっている。

Pam wants a stereo.

Notes

1. The い type adjective 欲しい expresses a person's desire for some object. Like other stative transitive adjectives, 欲しい takes the は~が construction, where the experiencer is marked by は and the desired object by が. (In subordinate clauses the experiencer is also marked by が.)

(⇨ は~が)

2. Since 欲しい expresses a very personal feelings the experiencer is usually the first person in declarative sentences and the second person in interrogative sentences, as in Key Sentence (A), Examples (a) and (b). The third person's desire is usually expressed by 欲しがっている 'Literally: be showing the sign of wanting (something)', as in Key Sentence (B) and Example (c). (⇨ がる) It is noted that when 欲しがっている is used, the desired object is marked by を.

3. It is, however, acceptable to use 欲しい in connection with the third person experiencer in the following situations:

ほしかった

ほしい

(⇨ のだ)

ほしい

Basic Page 146

㊦欲しい・ほしい (2)

Auxiliary Adjective (い)

Want someone (who is not higher in status than the speaker) to do something.	Want (someone) to do (something)
【Related Expression: もらいたい; たい】

Key Sentences

(ks). 私はあなたに英語を教えて欲しい・欲しいです。

I want you to teach me English.

Formation

Vて	ほしい
	話してほしい	Want (someone) to talk
	食べてほしい	Want (someone) to eat

Examples

(a). 私は子供達に私と一緒に住んで欲しい。

I want my children to live together with me.

(b). あなたは誰に来て欲しいですか。

Who do you want to come?

Notes

1. 欲しい is used as an auxiliary with Verbて to mean 'want (someone) to do (something)'. When the experiencer wants a person X to do something, X is marked by に. 欲しい is not used if X has a higher status than the experiencer. Thus, the following sentence is not appropriate when the speaker is a student of Profesoor Yoshida's. (See Related Expression, [2] for the correct sentence in that situation.)

私は吉田先生に来てほしい。
I want Professor Yoshida to come.

2. When Verbて欲しい is used, the experiencer is usually the first person in declarative sentences (Key Sentence, Example (a)) and the second person in interrogative sentences (Example (b)). If the experiencer is the third person, Verbてもらいたがっている '(literally) be showing the sign of wanting to receive the favor of doing something from someone' is used, as in (2).

(⇨ もらう2; たい; がる)

アダムスさんはフランシスにこの仕事をしてもらいたがっている。
Mr. Adams wants Francis to do this job.

【Related Expression】

The same idea can also be expressed by Verbてもらいたい (⇨ もらう2; たい) Example:

[1]

私はあなたに英語を教えてもらいたい。
I want you to teach me English.

This pattern can be used when the experiencer wants someone who has higher status to do something. In this case, いただく, the humble version of もらう, is used instead of もらう. Example:

[2]

私は吉田先生に来ていただきたい。
I would like Professor Yoshida to come.

Basic Page 148

㊦一番・いちばん

Adverb

A superlative marker.

Most

Key Sentences

(ks). クラス(の中)で大川さんが一番頭がいい。

Mr. Okawa is the brightest in the class.

Formation

(i)一番	Adjective い/な
	一番 {高い/高かった}	Something is/was the highest
	一番 {静かだ/静かだった}	Something is/was the most quiet
(ii)一番	{Adjective い stem く/Adjective な stem に}
	一番高く	Most highly
	一番静かに	Most quietly

Examples

(a). A:この中でどの映画が一番面白いですか。 B:この日本の映画でしょう。

A: Among these, which movie is the most interesting? B: This Japanese movie, I guess.

(b). A:松本さんと池田さんと清水さんの中で、誰が一番(よく)出来ますか。 B:池田さんです。

A: Among Mr. Matsumoto, Mr. Ikeda and Mr. Shimizu, who is the best student. B: Mr. Ikeda is.

(c). 日本で一番奇麗な所はどこですか。

Where is the most scenic place in Japan?

Notes

一番 cannot be affixed directly to a noun as in *一番先生, meaning 'the best teacher'. It should precede an adjective, as in 一番いい先生. If the meaning is predictable, however, the adverbial form of adjectives, especially よく 'well, frequently', may be omitted, as in Example (b).

Basic Page 149

㊦行く・いく (1)

Verb (Group 1)

Someone or something moves in a direction away from the speaker or the speaker's viewpoint.	Go; come
【Related Expression: 来る1】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 田中さんは来週アメリカへ・に行く・行きます。

Mr. Tanaka is going to America next week.

(ksb). 私は東京から大阪までバスで行った・行きました。

I went from Tokyo to Osaka by bus.

Examples

(a). 私は毎朝八時に会社に行く。

I go to work at eight every morning.

(b). A:今晩私のうちでパーティーをしますが来ませんか。 B:はい、行きます。

A: We are going to have a party at my place tonight. Wouldn't you like to come? B: Yes, I'll come.

(c). あなたにもその知らせは行きましたか。

Did the notice go to you, too?

(d). その村にもバスは行っている。

The bus goes to the village, too.

Notes

1. 行く1 is used when someone or something moves in a direction away from the speaker or in a direction away from the speakers viewpoint, which is not necessarily the speaker's position. (⇨ 来る1) For example, in the following situation, 行く is used when the speaker (point C) places his viewpoint near point A.

XさんはBに行った。
Mr. X went to B.

2. When someone goes to his own "home base" (e.g., うち 'home'), うちに行く is ungrammatical. In this case, 帰る 'return' is used as in うちに帰る 'go home'.

3. There are cases where both 来る and 行く can be used with different shades of meaning. Examples:

君のうちに息子が来ませんでした/行きませんでしたか。
Didn't my son go to your house?

スミスさんは来月ロスアンジェルスに来る/行くそうですね。
Mr. Smith, I was told that you're coming to Los Angeles next month.

In (2), when the speaker uses 来る, he is putting himself psychologically in the addressee's location; when he uses 行く he is not. In (3), 来る is more appropriate than 行く because, in general, a speaker is more empathetic with a location close to his own. The choice of 行く here definitely implies that the speaker is unusually unempathetic with his neighboring location.

Basic Page 151

㊦行く・いく (2)

Auxiliary Verb (Group 1)

Some action or state keeps changing from the point in time at which the speaker first describes the action.	Go on ~ing; continue; grow; become
【Related Expression: 来る2】

Key Sentences

(ks). これからは寒くなって行く・行きますよ。

It will get colder (and continue to be that way) from now on.

Formation

Vて	行く
	話して行く	Someone continues to talk
	食べて行く	Someone continues to eat

Examples

(a). これからは毎日本を一冊読んで行くつもりです。

I intend to keep reading one book a day from now on.

(b). これからは暖かくなって行きますよ。

It will grow warmer (and continue in that way) from now on.

(c). その頃から日本の経済は強くなって行った。

The Japanese economy grew stronger (and continued to grow that way) from that time on.

(d). 分からないことをノートに書いて行った。

I went on taking notes on things I didn't understand.

Notes

1. The point in time at which the action starts is the present time in Examples (a) and (b) and the past in Examples (c) and (d), respectively.

2. The following examples use 行く as a full verb meaning 'to go' and are not the usage of 行く2.

毎日会社にバスに乗って行く。
Literally: I ride a bus every day and go to my company. (= I go to work every day by bus.)

あのレストランでコーヒーを飲んで行きましょう。
Literally: Let's drink coffee at that restaurant and go. (= Let's drink coffee at that restaurant and then continue on our way.)

【Related Expression】

When a change of state is expressed by 行く2, as in Examples (b) and (c), 行く2 can be replaced by 来る2, as in [1a] and [1b] below.

[1]

a. これからは暖かくなって来ますよ。
It will grow warmer from now on.
b. その頃から日本の経済は強くなって来た。
The Japanese economy grew stronger from that time on.

The 行く2 versions here are more impersonal and objective than the 来る2 versions. The latter versions stress that some change is going to involve or has involved the speaker himself, while the former versions are impersonal statements.

Basic Page 153

㊦いる (1)

Verb (Group 2)

An animate thing exists.	Be; exist; stay
【Related Expression: ある1】

Key Sentences

(ksa). この町(に)は日本人が沢山いる・います。

In this town are many Japanese.

(ksb). リーはこの寮にいる・います。

Lee is in this dorm.

Examples

(a). この動物園にはパンダがいます。

There are pandas in this zoo.

(b). スチーブは今ロビンのアパートにいる。

Steve is in Robin's apartment now.

Notes

1. いる1 expresses existence in terms of animal life. It cannot be used for plant life or inanimate things. Thus, the following sentence is ungrammatical.

*このキャンパスには木がたくさんいる。
There are many trees on this campus.

For plants and inanimate things, ある is used.

(⇨ ㊦ある (1))

2. Two sentence patterns can be used with いる1. In the Key Sentence (A) pattern, a location is presented as the topic and what exists there is under focus. In this pattern the location marker に can optionally drop. In the Key Sentence (B) pattern, on the other hand, what exists is presented as the topic and where it exists is under focus.

(⇨ ㊦ある (1), Note 3)

3. An animate thing or a group or organization of animate things such as a football team can also be in the location position, as seen in (2).

a. 私(に)は子供が三人いる。
Literally: There are three children with me. (= I have three children.)
b. このチーム(に)はいいクオ一ターバックがいる。
Literally: There is a good quarterback in this team. = This team has a good quarterback.)

Basic Page 155

㊦いる (2)

Auxiliary Verb (Group 2)

Someone or something is doing something he or it started some time ago, or is in a state created by an action he or it took some time ago.	Be~ing; have done (something)
【Related Expression: ある2】

Key Sentences

(ks). 佐々木さんは酒を飲んでいる・います。

Mr. Sasaki is drinking sake.

Formation

Vて	いる
	話している	Be talking
	食べている	Be eating

Examples

(a). 和江は新聞を読んでいる。

Kazue is reading a newspaper.

(b). この林檎は腐っている。

This apple is rotten.

(c). 木が倒れている。

A tree has fallen down (and is lying there).

(d). 私は鈴木さんを知っています。

I know Miss Suzuki.

Notes

1. いる is used as an auxiliary verb with Verb-て and expresses the continuation of an action or state. In general, if Verb-て expresses an action which can continue or be repeated, Verb-て expresses the continuation of the action. If Verb-て is a verb indicating a momentary action which cannot be repeated, Verb-て expresses the idea that something happened to X and X maintains the state which was created by that event. Key Sentence and Example (a) are examples of the first usage and Examples (b), (c) and (d) are examples of the second usage. Note in Example (d) that 知る the dictionary form of 知って, means 'to get to know' and 知っている expresses the continuation of the state after the speaker got to know Miss Suzuki, which is expressed by know in English. It is also noted, however, that 'not to know' is not 知っていない but 知らない.

(⇨ ㊦知る・しる)

2. Verb-ている also expresses a habitual action, which is a special sort of repeated action. Example:

私は毎日四マイル走っている。
I run four miles every day.

3. When Verb-て is a motion verb such as 行く 'go', 来る 'come' and 帰る 'return', the meaning of Verb-ている is not 'be ~ing'. For example, 行っている means 'to have gone to some place and to still be there'. The sentences in (2) provide examples.

a. 次郎はアメリカに行っている。
Jiro has gone to America and is there.
b. ベックさんはもう家に帰っています。
Mr. Beck has already returned home and is there.

4. The verb 住む 'live' requires the Verb-ている pattern if the sentence expresses a present state. Also, verbs like 言う 'say' and 思う 'think' with a third person subject require the Verb-ている pattern if the sentence expresses a present state. Examples:

a. 私は東京に住んでいる/*住む。
I live in Tokyo.
b. ウェストさんは日本語はやさしいと思っている/*思う。
Mr. West thinks that Japanese is easy.

Basic Page 157

㊦要る・いる (3)

Verb (Group 1)

Someone, something needs something

Need

Key Sentences

(ks). 君達は英和辞典が要る・要ります。

You need an English-Japanese dictionary.

Examples

(a). 私は今お金が要る。

I need money now.

(b). 何か道具が要りますか。

Do you need some tools?

(c). この車はガソリンが沢山要る。

This car needs a lot of gas.

Notes

1. いる 'need' takes the は～が construction, where the experiencer (that is, the person or thing that needs something) is followed by は and the necessary object by が.

(⇨ ㊦は～が)

2. いる 'need' is a Group 1 verb; thus, the negative form is いらない, the polite form is いります and the て-form is いって.

3. The experiencer can also take the particle に, as in (1).

a. この子にはいい家庭教師がいる。
This child needs a good tutor. (Literally: For this child, a good tutor is necessary.)
b.このプロジェクトには人と金がいる。
This project needs people and money. (Literally: For this project people and money are necessary.)

4. In subordinate clauses, the experiencer is followed by either が or に, as in (2), unless the sentence is contrastive. (In that case, は follows.)

(⇨ ㊦は (1))

この車が/にガソリンがたくさんいることを知っていましたか。
Did you know that this car needs a lot of gas?

Basic Page 159

㊦自分・じぶん (1)

Pronoun

A reflexive pronoun that refers (back) to a human subject with whom the speaker is empathising.	~self; own
【Related Expression: 自分2】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 土田は幸子が自分を愛していることを知らなかった・知りませんでした。

Tsuchida didn't know that Sachiko loved him (literally: himself).

(ksb). 1:ゆかりは歩きながら考えていた。 2:健一は自分が本当に好きなんだろうか。

1: Yukari was walking while thinking. 2: Does Kenichi really love me (literally: myself)?

Examples

(a). 中川は自分が京大に入れると思っていなかった。

Nakagawa didn't think that he (literally: himself) could enter Kyoto University.

(b). 一郎は冬子が自分に会いに来た時うちにいなかった。

Ichiro wasn't at home when Fuyuko came to see him (literally: himself).

(c). 道子は一男に自分の車で行かせた。

Michiko made Kazuo go there in his/her car.

(d). ジョンはメアリーのことを思っていた。彼女は自分と結婚してくれるんだろうか。自分を捨てて、ボブと結婚するんだろうか。

John was thinking of Mary. Is she going to marry me (literally: myself)? Is she going to leave me (literally: myself) and marry Bob?

Notes

1. 自分1 is an empathy marker that normally refers back to the subject of the main clause as in Key Sentence (A), Examples (a), (b) and (c), or to the discourse topic as in Key Sentence (B) and Example (d).

2. When 自分 is an empathy marker, its referent (i.e., the subject of the sentence) is normally a passive experiencer. In other words, the referent is not an agent (i.e., someone who initiates and/or completes an action).

(⇨ 自分2)

3. Example (c) is an ambiguous sentence, because 自分 can refer to either the main subject Michiko or to Kazuo. 自分's reference to Kazuo is not a counter example of 自分's strong tendency to refer to the subject, however, because Kazuo is semantically the subject of the verb 行く 'go'. Also to be noted is that Michiko is an agent of the causative action, but Kazuo is a passive experiencer of the causative action. Indeed，it is easier to look at Kazuo as the object of the speaker's empathy, because he is a passive experiencer. It is very likely that 自分 is not an empathy marker but a contrastive marker when it refers to an agent Michiko. Other similar ambiguous sentences follow:

a. 道子は一男に自分の車で行ってもらった。
Literally: Michiko received from Kazuo a favor of going there in her/his own car. ( = Michiko had Kazuo go there in her/his own car.)
b. 道子は一男に自分の車で行かれた。
Literally: Michiko is annoyed by the fact that Kazuo went there by her/his own car. ( = Michiko had Kazuo go there in her/his own car.)

Note that 自分 in (1a, b) is an empathy marker when it refers to Michiko and is a contrastive marker when it refers to Kazuo.

(⇨ 自分2)

4. The referent of 自分 in a complex sentence has to be conscious of the situation expressed in the main clause. Compare (2a) and (2b):

a. 友子は自分が死ぬ前に子供が大学に入った。
Literally: Speaking of Tomoko, before she (Literally: herself) died, her child entered college. (= Before Tomoko died, her child entered college.)
b. *友子は自分が死んだあとで子供が大学に入った。
Literally: Speaking of Tomoko, after she (Literally: herself) had died, her child entered college. (= After Tomoko died, her child entered college.)

The sentence (2b) is ungrammatical because one can hardly empathize with a dead person.

Basic Page 161

㊦自分・じぶん (2)

Pronoun

A reflexive pronoun that refers (back) to a human subject, the referent of which is contrasted with someone else.	~self; own
【Related Expression: 自分1】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 日本人は自分の国の文化をユニークだと思っている・います。

The Japanese think that their country's culture is unique.

(ksb). メアリーは自分で何でもする・します。

Mary does everything by herself.

(ksc). 一男は自分を励ました・励ましました。

Kazuo braced himself.

Examples

(a). 自分を知ることが一番難しい。

To know yourself is the hardest.

(b). マイクはいつも自分の寮の部屋で勉強している。

Mike is always studying in his own dorm room.

(c). 小林は自分からしたいと言った。

Kobayashi voluntarily (literally: from himself) said that he wanted to do it.

(d). 先生はご自分の家で私に会って下さった。

The professor kindly met me at his own house.

Notes

自分 is a contrastive marker if at least one of the following three conditions is met:

(1) its referent is an agent (as in Key Sentences (B), (C), Examples (b), (c) and (d)).
(2) the subject is generic (as in Key Sentences (A) and Example (a)).
(3) 自分 cannot be replaced by an implicit third person pronoun (Ø) or by an explicit third person pronoun (such as 彼 'he' and 彼女 'her').

Key Sentence (C) satisfies the condition (3), because if 自分 is replaced by Ø or 彼 'he', the meaning of the sentence changes into 'Kazuo encouraged him.'

【Related Expression】

自分 is 自分1 if the referent does not satisfy any of the three conditions given in Note; if it satisfies at least one of them it is 自分2.

Basic Page 164

㊦か (1)

Particle

A particle which marks an alternative.	(either)~or~
【Related Expression: それとも】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 私は電車かバス(か)で行く・行きます。

I will go either by train or by bus.

(ksb). トムが行くかメアリーが行くかどちらかだ・です。

Either Tom will go or Mary will go.

Formation

(i){V/Adjective い} informal	か
	{話す /話した}か	Either someone talks/talked or
	{高い /高かった}か	Either something is/was expensive or
(ii){Adjective な stem/ N}	{Øだった}か
	{静か /静かだった}か	Either something is/was quiet or
	{先生 /先生だった}か	Either someone is/was a teacher or
(iii)N1 か N2	先生か学生	Either a teacher or a student

Examples

(a). 私は毎朝ジュースかミルクを飲む。

I drink either juice or milk every morning.

(b). それはボブかマークかします。

As for that, either Bob or Mark will do it.

(c). 肉が高かったか一郎が嫌いだったかどちらかだ。

Either meat was expensive or Ichiro didn't like meat.

(d). 手紙を書くか電話をかけるかどちらかして下さい。

Either write a letter or make a call, please.

(e). 食べるか話すかどちらかにしなさい。

Decide on either eating or talking.

Notes

1. The basic function of か is to mark an alternative. It can mark either nouns or sentences. When it marks nouns, the final か is usually omitted. When it marks sentences, the sentences are subordinate clauses; that is, they must be in the informal form. The topic marker は must not be used.

2. か cannot be used to connect two questions. Thus, the following sentences are ungrammatical.

a. *これはあなたのですか。か私のですか。
Is this yours or mine?
b. *私と一緒に来ますか。かここにいますか。
Will you come with me? Or will you stay here?

In this case, それとも is used instead of か.

(⇨ それとも)

【Related Expression】

それとも is also used with alternatives. However, the function of それとも is to connect two alternatives, not to mark an alternative. Thus, それとも appears with か, not in place of か. Examples:

[1]

肉が高かったか，それとも一郎が肉がきらいだったかどちらかだ。
Either meat was expensive or Ichiro didn't like meat.

[2]

私と一緒に来ますか。それともここにいますか。
Will you come with me? Or will you stay here?

それとも is optional in [1], but not in [2].

Basic Page 166

㊦か (2)

Particle

A sentence final particle which indicates that the preceding sentence is interrogative.	Whether; if
【Related Expression: だい (かい)】

Key Sentences

(ksa). よし子は大学へ行く・行きますか。

Is Yoshiko going to college?

(ksb). 私はテリーにナンシが日本へ行くかと聞いた・聞きました。

I asked Terry whether Nancy was going to Japan.

Formation

(i){Verb/Adjective い}	か
	{話す /話します}か	Will (or does) someone talk? (informal/formal)
	{高い /高いです}か	Is something expensive? (informal/formal)
(ii){Adjective な stem/ Noun}	{Øです}か
	{静か /静かです}か	Is something quiet? (informal/formal)
	{先生 /先生です}か	Is someone a teacher? (informal/formal)

Examples

(a). あなたは学生ですか。

Are you a student?

(b). これは何ですか。

What is this?

(c). 友達は漢字が難しいかと聞いた。

My friend asked if kanji is difficult.

(d). 私はジャンに誰が来たかと尋ねた。

I asked Jan who had come.

(e). 僕は山崎先生が昨日何を言ったか忘れてしまった。

I've forgotten (completely) what Professor Yamazaki said yesterday.

(f). 私は健二にお金を貸したかどうか思い出せない。

I cannot remember if I lent Kenji some money.

Notes

1. The question marker か is a special use of the か which marks an alternative (i.e., か1). For example, Key Sentence (A) came from (1), with the parenthesized part omitted.

(⇨ か1)

よし子は大学へ行きますか。 (それとも行きませんか。)
Is Yoshiko going to college? (Or is she not?)

2. Unless it is very informal, an interrogative sentence is marked by か whether it is a yes-no question or an interrogative word question. (⇨ だい; かい) Note that in Japanese interrogative sentences, the word order is the same as that of the corresponding declarative sentence. Also, an interrogative sentence is pronounced with rising intonation whether it is a yes-no question or a interrogative word question.

3. か remains in indirect questions as in Key Sentence (B), Examples (c) and (d).

4. When the informal forms of な type adjectives and the copula precede the question marker か, だ drops. A possible reason is that だ, the informal form of です, expresses a strong assertion and it conflicts with the question marker か, which expresses the speaker's uncertainty about something.

(⇨ かい; かもしれない; かしら)

Basic Page 168

㊦か(どうか)

Particle

A marker for an embedded yes-no question.

Whether or not; if (~ or not)

Key Sentences

(ks). 鈴木さんが大学に入ったか(どうか)(は)知らない・知りません。

I don't know whether or not Mr. Suzuki entered college.

Formation

(i){V/Adjective い} informal	か(どうか)
	{話す /話した}か(どうか)	Whether or not someone talks/talked
	{高い /高かった}か(どうか)	Whether or not something is/was expensive
(ii) {Adjective な stem/ N}	{Øだった}か(どうか)
	{静か /静かだった}か(どうか)	Whether or not something is/was quiet
	{先生 /先生だった}か(どうか)	Whether or not someone is/was a teacher

Examples

(a). 小川さんが結婚しているかどうか知っていますか。

Do you know if Mr. Ogawa is married or not?

(b). フォークナーの小説が面白いかどうか知らない。

I don't know if Faulkner's novels are interesting.

Notes

1. When the optional どうか is used, the embedded question has to be a yes-no question. If it is not used，then the question can be either a yes-no question or an interrogative word question.

レストランで何を食べたか/*かどうか覚えていますか。
Do you remember what you ate at the restaurant?

その時だれと一緒にいたか/*かどうか覚えていますか。
Do you remember who you were with at that time?

2. Typical final verbs include, among others, verbs of knowing, examining, understanding, asking, remembering, and deciding.

3. Sentnece informal か(どうか) can be used as a noun phrase that takes particles such as が and を.

仕事をやめるかどうかが問題だった。
Whether or not to quit the job was the question.

大学院に行くかどうかを今考えています。
I'm now thinking about whether or not I will go to graduate school.

Basic Page 170

㊦かい

Particle

A sentence final particle which marks yes-no questions in informal male speech.

【Related Expression: だい (か2)】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 日本語は面白いかい。

Is Japanese interesting?

(ksb). 上野さんはアメリカへ行くのかい。

Is Mr. Ueno going to America?

Formation

(i){V/Adjective い informal}	かい
	{話す /話した}かい	Does (or will)/Did someone talk?
	{高い /高かった}かい	Is/was something expensive?
(ii){Adjective な stem/ N}	{Øだった}かい
	{静か /静かだった}かい	Is/was something quiet?
	{先生 /先生だった}かい	Is/was someone a teacher?
(iii){V/Adjective い} informal	のかい
	{話す /話した}のかい	Does (or will)/Did someone talk?
	{高い /高かった}のかい	Is/was something expensive?
(iv){Adjective な stem/ Noun}	{なだった}のかい
	{静かな/静かだった}のかい	Is/was something quiet?
	{先生な/先生だった}のかい	Is/was someone a teacher?

Examples

(a). 日本語を勉強するかい。

Will you study Japanese?

(b). このアパートは静かかい。

Is this apartment quiet?

(c). 君達は学生かい。

Are you students?

(d). その本は難しいのかい。

Is the book difficult?

(e). あの人は先生なのかい。

Is that person a teacher?

Notes

1. Since かい is used in informal speech, preceding sentences must be in the informal form. The following sentences are unacceptable.

a. *日本語はおもしろいです(の)かい。
Is Japanese interesting?
b. *上野さんはアメリカへ行きます(の)かい。
Is Mr. Ueno going to America?

2. かい is used only for yes-no questions. Thus, the following sentences are ungrammatical.

a. *どこへ行く(の)かい。
Where are you going?
b. *あの人はだれ(なの)かい。
Who is that person?

In these sentences, だい is used. (⇨ だい)

3. Questions in the Key Sentence (A) pattern and those in the Key Sentence (B) pattern correspond to questions without のです and those with のです in formal speech, respectively.

(⇨ のだ)

4. Questions in female informal speech can be formed by dropping かい in male informal questions and using rising intonation. Examples:

a.日本語はおもしろい(の)？
Is Japanese interesting?
b. 上野さんはアメリカへ行く(の)？
Is Mr. Ueno going to America?
c. あの人は先生(なの)？
Is that person a teacher?

For a summary of the endings for informal questions, see だい, Related Expression.

Basic Page 173

㊦かもしれない

Auxiliary Adjective (い)

Can't tell if ~	Might
【Related Expression: だろう; に違いない; そうだ2】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 午後雨が降るかもしれない・かもしれません。

It might rain in the afternoon.

(ksb). あの先生の授業は詰らないかもしれない・かもしれません。

That teacher's class might be dull.

(ksc). 京都の桜はまだ奇麗かもしれない・かもしれません。

The cherry blossoms in Kyoto might still be beautiful.

Formation

(i){V/Adjective い} informal	かもしれない
	{話す /話した}かもしれない	Someone might talk/might have talked
	{高い /高かった}かもしれない	Something might be high/might have been high
(ii){Adjective な stem/ Noun}	{Øだった}かもしれない
	{静か静かだった}かもしれない	Something might be quiet/might have been quiet
	{先生先生だった}かもしれない	Someone might be a teacher/might have been a teacher

Examples

(a). 今年の冬は大変寒くなるかもしれません。

It might be very cold this winter.

(b). あの人は今日のパーティーのことを忘れたかもしれません。

He might have forgotten about today's party.

(c). この映画はあなたにつまらないかもしれません。

This movie might be uninteresting for you.

(d). 中国語の文法は日本語の文法より簡単かもしれない。

Chinese grammar might be simpler than Japanese grammar.

(e). あれは鈴木先生かもしれないよ。

That might be Professor Suzuki.

Notes

【Related Expressions】

I. The probability of accuracy predicted by a かもしれない sentence is lower than that of a だろう sentence and much lower than that of a に違いいない sentence as diagrammed below:

low probability	high probability
かもしれない	だろう	に違いない

The Japanese weatherman on radio or TV, for example, employs でしょう (the formal version of だろう) in his forecasts as in the following:

[1]

関東地方、あすは小雨が一日中降るでしょう。
Tomorrow, in the Kanto area it will probably be drizzling all day long.

II. Verbます/Adjective(い/な) stem そうだ is used when the speaker's conjecture is based primarily on visual or other perceptual evidence, but かもしれない is not; rather the latter is used when that conjecture is based on logical reasoning. Thus,

[2]

あつ！このケーキ(は)おいしそうですね。
Look, this cake looks good, doesn't it?

*あつ！このケーキ(は)おいしいかもしれませんね。
*Look, this cake might be good, might it not?

(⇨ ようだ)

Basic Page 176

㊦から (1)

Particle

A particle which indicates a starting point or a source.	From; since; out of
【Related Expression: に3; を3】

Key Sentences

(ks). パーティーは八時から始まる・始まります。

The party starts from eight o'clock.

Examples

(a). 今日の授業は一時から三時までです。

Today's class is from one o'clock till three o'clock.

(b). このバスはニューヨークから来た。

This bus came from New York.

(c). ここから富士山が見えるよ。

You can see Mt. Fuji from here.

(d). そのタイプライターは誰から借りたんですか。

Who did you borrow the typewriter from?

(e). 酒は米から作る。

Sake is made out of rice.

(f). つまらないことから喧嘩になった。

We started a quarrel over a trifle.

Notes

から basically indicates a temporal or spatial starting point (Examples (a), (b) and (c)) or a source (Examples (d), (e) and (f)). As seen in Examples (d), (e) and (f), a source can be a person, material,a cause or a reason.

Basic Page 177

㊦から (2)

Conjunction

After/since a point in time at which something takes place.	After; having done something; since (time)
【Related Expression: あとで; てform of verb】

Key Sentences

(ks). 雪子は晩ご飯を食べてから映画に行った・行きました。

After eating her supper, Yukiko went to a movie.

Formation

Vてから	話してから	After talking
	食べてから	After eating

Examples

(a). 私は友達に電話してからうちを出た。

I left home after making a call to my friend.

(b). ジョーンズさんはいつもシャワーを浴びてから寝ます。

Mr. Jones always goes to bed after taking a shower.

(c). 私達がこの家を買ってからもう十年になる。

It's already been ten years since we bought this house.

(d). 二年前に交通事故を起こしてから、ミラーさんは車に乗らないようにしています。

Since he caused a traffic accident two years ago, Mr. Miller has been trying not to drive a car.

Notes

1. Verbてから Sentence means 'Sentence after doing something' or 'Sentence since ~ did something'. The usage of から2 is an extended use of から1.

2. てから is not to be confused with たから in which から is used as a conjunction of cause/reason.

(⇨ から3)

a. ジョギングをしてからシャワーを浴びた。
After jogging, I took a shower.
b. ジョギングをしたからシャワーを浴びた。
Because I jogged, I took a shower.

【Related Expression】

から in Verbてから can be omitted if the main verb does not indicate a high degree of volitional control on the part of the speaker as in the cases of a strong suggestion, determination or a command. Thus, in Key Sentence and Examples (a), (b) and (c) から can drop, but in Example (d), [1a] and [2a] it cannot.

[1]

a. 勉強が終わってからテニスをしましょう。
Let's play tennis after we've finished studying.
b. *勉強が終わって，テニスをしましょう。
*We've finished studying, and let's play tennis.

[2]

a. 勉強が終わってから遊びなさい。
Play after you've finished studying.
b. *勉強が終わって遊びなさい。
*You've finished studying, and play.

The difference between てから and て is that the former focuses more on chronological order and volitional planning than the latter does.

Basic Page 179

㊦から (3)

Conjunction

A subordinate conjunction which expresses a reason or a cause.	So; since; because
【Related Expression: ので】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 来年日本へ行くから日本語を勉強している・います。

I'm studying Japanese because I'm going to Japan next year.

(ksb). A:どうして日本語を勉強しているん(だ・ですか)。 B:来年日本へ行くからだ・です。

A: Why are you studying Japanese? B: It's because I'm going to Japan next year.

Formation

Sinformal	から
	{話す/話した}から	Because someone (will) talk/talked
	{高い/高かった}から	Because something is/was expensive
	{静かだ/静かだった}から	Because somehing is/was quiet
	{先生だ/先生だった} から	Because someone is/was a teacher

Examples

(a). 春子は十七だからまだお酒を飲めない。

Haruko is seventeen, so she can't drink sake yet.

(b). 今日は忙しいですから明日来て下さい。

Please come tomorrow because I'm busy today.

(c). A:どうして昨日学校を休んだんですか。 B:頭が痛かったからです。

A: Why were you absent from school yesterday? B: It was because I had a headache.

Notes

1. Sentence から represents a reason or a cause. Thus, Sentence1 から Sentence2 corresponds to 'Sentence2 because/since S1', 'Because/since Sentence1, Sentence2', or 'Sentence1, so Sentence2'. Note that the order of Sentence1 and Sentence2 is not always the same in English, while in Japanese から clauses (i.e., Sentence1) always precede main clauses (i.e., Sentence2).

2. In subordinate clauses predicates are usually in the informal form. However, since the degree of subordination or dependency of Sentence1 in "Sentence1 から Sentence2" is rather low, Sentence1 may be in the formal form in very formal speech, as in Example (b).

3. When a main clause is known to the hearer from the context, the Key Sentence (B) pattern is used. In this case, the から clause must be in the informal form. The following sentence is unacceptable.

*来年日本へ行きますからだ/です。
It's because I'm going to Japan next year.

4. In question-and-answer situations as in Key Sentence (B) and Example (c), abbreviated forms are occasionally used. For example, speaker B may say (2) in the Key Sentence (B) situation.

来年日本へ行きますから。
Because I'm going to Japan next year.

In this sentence, the main clause 日本語を勉強しています 'I'm studying Japanese' has been omitted.

Basic Page 181

㊦かしら

Particle

A sentence final particle which expresses the idea that the female speaker wonders about something.

Key Sentences

(ks). 松本さんは来るかしら。

I wonder if Mr. Matsumoto will come.

Formation

(i){V/Adjective い} informal	かしら
	{話す /話した}かしら	I wonder someone (will) talk/talked
	{高い /高かった}かしら	I wonder something is/was expensive
(ii){Adjective な stem/ N}	{Øだった}かしら
	{静か /静かだった}かしら	I wonder something is/was quiet
	{先生/ 先生だった}かしら	I wonder someone is/was a teacher

Examples

(a). あの先生の授業は面白いかしら。

I wonder if that teacher's class is interesting.

(b). 幸子さんは何が好きかしら。

I wonder what Sachiko likes.

(c). あの人は誰かしら。

I wonder who that person is.

Notes

1. Etymologically, かしら comes from か知らない 'I don't know (if) ~', but now expresses the idea "I wonder".

2. かしら is usually used by female speakers in rather informal speech. The male version is かなあ which is used only in fairly informal situations. The formation rules of かなあ are exactly the same as those for かしら.

3. Sentence formal かしら is acceptable if the situation is very formal. Example:

そこは静かですかしら。
I wonder if that place is quiet.

4. Since かしら and かなあ mean 'I wonder' (present tense), they cannot be used for expressions like "I wondered" and "Mr. Smith wondered". For such expressions, "Aは Sentence Informal かしら/かなあと思う" is used. Here, A is the person who wonders; と思う literally means 'think that'. Examples:

a. 私は松本さんは来るかしらと思った。
I wondered if Mr. Matsumoto would come.
b. 山本さんは小川さんは先生かしらと思った。
Ms. Yamamoto wondered if Mr. Ogawa was a teacher.

Basic Page 183

㊦方・かた

Suffix

A noun forming suffix that indicates a way or a manner in which one does something.	A way of; a manner of; how to
【Related Expression: 方法】

Key Sentences

(ks). ケーキの作り方を教えて下さい。

Please show me how to make a cake.

Formation

Vます	方
	話し方	Way/manner of speaking
	食べ方	Way/manner of eating

Examples

(a). この漢字の書き方が分かりません。

I don't know how to write this kanji.

(b). あの人の歩き方は面白いですね。

His manner of walking is amusing, isn't it?

(c). 日本語の勉強の仕方を教えて下さい。

Please teach me how to study Japanese language.

Notes

1. Verbます+方 is in itself ambiguous, meaning either 'way' or 'manner'. Thus,

飲み方が大事です。

is ambiguous: it means either 'The way of drinking is important' or 'The manner in which one drinks is important'. The separate meanings become clearer in an extended context:

この薬は飲み方が大事です。必ず食前に飲んでください。
It's important to know how to take this medicine. Be sure to take it before every meal.

スープは飲み方が大事です。
In eating soup the manner (in which one eats it) is important.

2. Sino-Japanese verbs such as 勉強する 'study', 電話する 'telephone', 料理する 'cook', 説明する, 'explain' and 相談する 'consult' need the particle の before 仕方 as in:

勉強/電話/料理/説明の仕方
a way/manner of studying/telephoning/cooking/explanation

【Related Expression】

方 can be replaced by 方法 but only when 方 means 'a way of doing something'. 方法 roughly corresponds to the English word 'method'; it means a relatively complicated way of doing something. Example (c) can be rewritten as [1].

[1]

日本語の勉強の方法を教えてください。
Please teach me a method for studying Japanese.

Basic Page 184

㊦代わりに・かわりに

Phrase

Something (including an action) replaces something else.	In place of~; instead of; to make up for~; although; but
【Related Expression: けれど(も); しかし】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 先生のかわりに私が教えた・教えました。

I taught in place of my teacher.

(ksb). 土曜日に仕事をするかわりに月曜日は休む・休みます。

To make up for working on Saturdays, I take Mondays off.

Formation

(i)Noun	の代わりに
	先生の代わりに	In place of the teacher
(ii){V/Adjective い} informal	代わりに
	{話す /話した}代わりに	Instead of talking/talked but
	{食べる /食べた}代わりに	Instead of eating/ate but
	{高い /高かった}代わりに	Something is/was expensive but~
(iii)Adjective な stem	{なだった}代わりに
	{静かな/静かだった}代わりに	Something is/was quiet but~

Examples

(a). ビールのかわりに酒を買いました。

I bought sake instead of beer.

(b). 私のかわりに父が行ってもいいですか。

Can my father go there in place of me?

(c). 今日は夜おそくまで踊るかわりに明日は一日中勉強します。

I'll study all day tomorrow to make up for dancing until late tonight.

(d). 手伝ってあげるかわりに飲ませて下さいよ。

I'll help you, so (to make up for it) please (literally: let me drink) buy me a drink, OK?

(e). 僕のアパートは不便なかわりに家賃が安い。

My apartment is inconvenient, but the rent is cheap.

(f). 英語を教えてあげたかわりに日本語を教えてもらった。

I taught him Japanese, so (to make up for it) he taught me English.

(g). その車は安かったかわりによく故障した。

That car was inexpensive, but it often broke down.

Notes

In Noun1 の代わりに Noun2, Noun2 is regarded as the substitute for Noun1, which is the originally intended item. In Sentence1 informal 代わりに Sentence2, an action or a state identified by Sentence2 takes place to make up for a counter-action or counter-state represented in Sentence.

【Related Expressions】

In Sentence1代わりにSentence2, 代わりに can be replaced by けれど(も) 'although' or しかし 'but'. Note, however, that the converse is not always acceptable. Thus, けれど(も) and しかし in [1] below cannot be replaced by 代わりに, because the meaning of 'making up for ~' is missing, but the same conjunctions in [2] can be replaced by 代わりに, because the compensative meaning is present there.

[1]

私は甘いものをたくさん食べるけれど(も)/。しかし/*かわりに歯は強い。
Although I eat a lot of sweets, I have strong teeth.

[2]

私は甘いものをたくさん食べるけれど(も)/。しかし/かわりに歯をよく磨く。
Although I eat a lot of sweets, I brush my teeth well.

Basic Page 187

㊦けれども

Conjunction

A disjunctive subordinate conjunction that combines two sentences.	Although; though
【Related Expression: が2 (だが, だけど, でも, しかし)】

Key Sentences

(ks). 私は言わなかったけれどもトムは知っていた・いました。

Although I didn't tell him, Tom knew (about it).

Formation

Sinformal	けれども
	{話す /話した}けれども	Although someone (will) talk/talked
	{高い /高かった}けれども	Although something is/was expensive
	{静かだ /静かだった}けれども	Although something is/was quiet
	{先生だ /先生だった}けれども	Although someone is/was a teacher

Examples

(a). この本は高いけれどもいい本ですよ。

Although it is expensive, this book is a good book.

(b). 僕はドイツ語があまり好きじゃないけれども勉強しなければならない。

Although I don't like German very much, I have to study it.

(c). 大野さんは九十歳だけれどもとても元気だ。

Although Mr. Ono is ninety years old, he is very healthy.

Notes

1. Sentence1 これども Sentence2 means 'Although Sentence1, Sentence2'. Here, Sentence1 けれども is a subordinate clause, therefore it is usually in the informal form. However, in very polite speech, Sentence1 can be in the formal form, as in (1).

この本は高いですけれどもいい本ですよ。
Although it is expensive, this book is a good book.

2. The informal forms of けれども (listed from least formal to most formal)

けどけどもけれど.

Basic Page 188

㊦聞こえる・きこえる

Verb (Group 2)

Something is passively and spontaneously audiable.	Audible; (can) hear; it sounds
【Related Expression: 聞ける】

Key Sentences

(ks). 私(に)は鶯の声がよく聞こえる・聞こえます。

To me the cries of a nightingale are clearly audible./ I can clearly hear the cries of a nightingale.

Examples

(a). その音は小さ過ぎて聞こえない。

That sound is too weak and is not audible.

(b). 大山さんの声は大きいので隣の部屋の人にもよく聞こえる。

Mr. Oyama's voice is so loud that people in the neighbouring rooms can hear him.

(c). 私にはお寺の鐘の音が聞こえたが、弟には聞こえなかった。

I could hear the sound of the temple bell, but my younger brother couldn't.

(d). テーラーさんの作った文は変に聞こえる。

The sentences which Mr. Taylor made sound strange.

Notes

【Related Expression】

聞こえる is different from the regular potential form of 聞く 'hear' (i.e., 聞ける) in that the former indicates a passive, auditory potentiality, whereas the latter indicates that the speaker (or the subject of sentence) can hear sound not passively but actively. Thus,

[1]

僕は耳が聞こえない/*聞けない。
I am deaf.

[2]

こんなに後ろに座るとよく聞こえない/*聞けないよ。
If we sit this far back, we won't be able to hear well.

[3]

いいステレオを買ったからレコ一ドが聞ける/*聞こえる。
I bought a good stereo set, so I can listen to records.

[4]

音楽がうるさくて話が聞こえない/聞けない。
The music is so loud that the conversation is inaudible/we cannot hear the conversation.

Note that in [4] both 聞ける and 聞こえる are possible, depending on the speaker's perception of the situation; if he perceives the situation to be inalterable, he uses 聞こえる; if not, he uses 聞ける.

Basic Page 190

㊦嫌いだ・きらいだ

Adjective (な)

Something or someone is what someone does not like.	Don't like; dislike
【Antonym Expression: 好きだ】

Key Sentences

(ks). 私はチーズが嫌いだ・嫌いです。

I don't like cheese.

Examples

(a). 僕は冬が嫌いだ。

I dislike winter.

(b). ホワイトさんはフットボールが大嫌いです。

Mr. White hates football.

Notes

1. 嫌いだ is a な type adjective which requires the "は~が construction". (⇨ は~が) The experiencer (i.e., the person who dislikes some thing) is marked by は and the disliked object by が. Note that the disliked object is marked by が, not by を.

2. In subordinate clauses, は marking the experiencer changes into が, as seen in (1).

a. 私がチーズがきらいなことはみんな知っている。
Everybody knows that I don't like cheese.
b. 僕がきらいな季節は冬です。
The season I don't like is winter.

3. "Dislike a lot" is expressed by 大嫌い, as in Example (b).

Basic Page 191

㊦こと (1)

Noun

A thing which is intangible.	Thing; what
【Related Expression: もの】

Key Sentences

(ksa). いいことを教えてあげよう・あげましょう。

I have a good suggestion for you.

(ksb). 論文に書いたことを話して下さい。

Please tell me what you wrote in your thesis.

(ksc). ブラウンさんは日本の大学のことをよく知っている・います。

Mr. Brown knows a lot (of things) about Japanese universities.

Formation

(i){V/Adjective い} informal	こと
	{話す /話した}こと	What someone (will) says/said
	{面白い /面白かった}こと	What is/was interesting
(ii)Adjective な stem	{なだった}こと
	{大事な/大事だった}こと	What is/was important
(iii) Noun	のこと
	先生のこと	Things about the teacher

Examples

(a). 大事なことはもう全部話しました。

I already told you everything that's important.

(b). 先生が言ったことを覚えていますか。

Do you remember what (=the thing which) the teacher said?

(c). 試験のことは忘れなさい。

Forget about the exam.

Notes

1. こと means a thing which is intangible. Thus,(1) is ungrammatical.

*おいしいことはありませんか。
Literally: Isn't there a delicious thing?

2. Nounのこと, whose literal meaning is 'thing of Noun' is often used with such verbs as 知っている 'know', 話す 'talk' and 忘れる 'forget', and means 'know about Noun', 'talk about Noun', etc.

3. こと is used as a nominalizer, too. (⇨ こと2) Example (b), for instance, is ambiguous without proper context. That is, it means either 'Do you remember the thing which the teacher said?' or 'Do you remember (the fact) that the teacher said (it)?'

【Related Expression】

もの also means 'thing', but it means 'a tangible thing'. Compare こと and もの in the following sentences:

[1]

黒いもの/*ことが見えましたか。
Literally: Did you see a black thing?

[2]

おもしろいこと/*ものを話してください。
Please tell us interesting things.

Basic Page 193

㊦こと (2)

Nominaliser

A nominaliser used to indicate the speaker's relative lack of empathy with the content of the sentence he is nominalising.	To~; ~ing; that
【Related Expression: の3】

Key Sentences

(ks). 小説を書くことは難しい(です)。

Writing a novel is hard.

Formation

(i){V/Adjective い} informal	こと
	{話す /話した}こと	(the fact) that someone talks/talked
	{高い /高かった}こと	(the fact) that something is/was expensive
(ii)Adjective な stem	{なだった}こと
	{静かな/静かだった}こと	(the fact) that something is/was quiet
(iii)Noun	{であるであっただった}こと
	{先生である/先生であった/先生だった}こと	(the fact) that someone is/was a teacher

Examples

(a). 若い時にいい友達を作ることはとても大事だ。

It is very important to make good friends when one is young.

(b). 大学四年の時フランスに留学することを考えています。

I am thinking of studying in France during my senior year.

(c). 日本の文化が面白いことは分かるが、ユニークだとは思わない。

I know that Japanese culture is interesting, but I don't think that it is unique.

(d). スイスが奇麗なことは写真で知っています。

From pictures I know that Switzerland is beautiful.

(e). あの人がいい人であることは確かです。

He is without doubt a good person.

Notes

The nominalizer こと turns not just a verb or adjective but an entire sentence into a noun phrase. For example, in Key Sentence the sentence 小説を書く 'one writes a novel' becomes a complex noun phrase. Once a sentence has become a noun phrase, it can be used anywhere a regular noun phrase can be used. Thus, it can function as the subject, as in Key Sentence or Examples (a) and (e), or as the direct object, as in Examples (b) and (d), and so on.

【Related Expression】

In contrast to another nominalizer の, こと tends to indicate something the speaker does not feel close to. Thus, in Key Sentence, the nominalizer こと indicates that the speaker of the sentence is not personally involved in writing a novel; in other words, he is stating the sentence in general or objective terms. The nominalizer の, however, indicates something which the speaker can directly perceive or empathize with. (⇨ の3) Therefore, if こと in Key Sentence is replaced by の, the nominalizer now indicates that the speaker of the sentence is somehow personally involved with writing a novel; in short, he is empathetic with an act of writing a novel. A few typical examples in which の or こと are unacceptable are given.

[1]

a. 僕は静江が泳ぐの/*ことを見ていた。
I was watching Shizue swim.
b. お母さんがこんなに心配しているの/??ことが分からないの？
Don't you understand that I am (literally: your mom is) really worried?
c. ジェーンはビルが洗濯するの/*ことを手伝った。
Jane helped Bill do laundry.
d. この町ではいい音楽を聞くこと/*のが出来る。
I can listen to good music in this town.
e. 見ること/*のは信じること/*のだ。
To see is to believe.

Incidentally, the difference between こと and の is apparently due to the difference in the initial sounds 'k' and 'n'; the velar sound 'k' is used to symbolize a harsh, metallic, impersonal sound and the nasal sound 'n' is used to symbolize a soft, warm, personal sound.

Basic Page 196

㊦ことがある (1)

Phrase

There was a time when ~

Someone has done something; someone has had an experience doing something; there was a time when~

Key Sentences

(ks). 私はヨーロッパへ行ったことがある・あります。

I have been to Europe.

(ks). レタスがとても高かったことがある・あります。

There was a time when lettuce was very expensive.

Formation

Sinformal past	ことがある
	話したことがある	Have talked
	高かったことがある	There was a time when something was expensive
	静かだったことがある	There was a time when something was quiet
	先生だったことがある	There was a time when someone was a teacher

Examples

(a). 私は中学校で英語を教えたことがあります。

I have taught English at a junior high school.

(b). 小川さんはまだゴルフをしたことがない。

Mr. Ogawa hasn't played golf yet.

(c). 私は日本の小説をよく読んだことがある。

There was a time when I read a lot of Japanese novels.

(d). スーザンは一時ジャズがとても好きだったことがある。

There was a time when Susan liked jazz a lot.

(e). 私はプロ野球選手だったことがあります。

There was a time when I was a professional baseball player.

Notes

1. In general, Sentence informal past ことがある expresses the idea that there was a time when someone or something was in some state or did something.

2. More specifically, Sentence informal past ことがある expresses one's experience. In this case, Sentence informal past ことがある is an extended use of the possession expression "AはBがある", where B is a past action rather than a possessed thing. (⇨ ある1, Note 4) This extended use of the expression of possession for the expression of experience in Japanese is parallel to that in English. Compare (1) and (2).

私は車がある。
I have a car.

私は [ロシア語を勉強したこと] past action がある。
I have [studied Russian.] past action

3. In the Sentence informal past ことがある structure, a past time adverb can be used in the Sentence.

私は五年前に日本へ行ったことがある。
I went to Japan five years ago. (Literally: I have been to Japan five years ago.)

(3) expresses the ideas "I have been to Japan" and "It was five years ago" at the same time. However, in this usage, the time expressed cannot be too close to the present. (4) is unacceptable.

*私はきのうさしみを食べたことがある。
Literally: I have eaten sashimi yesterday.

Basic Page 198

㊦ことがある (2)

Phrase

There are times when ~.

Key Sentences

(ks). 私は朝風呂に入ることがある・あります。

There are times when I take a bath in the morning.

Formation

(i)V/Adjective い informal nonpast	ことがある
	話すことがある	There are times when someone talks
	高いことがある	There are times when something is expensive
(ii)Adjective な stem	なことがある
	静かなことがある	There are times when something is quiet
(iii)Noun	{のである}ことがある
	{先生の/先生である}ことがある	There are time when someone is a teacher

Examples

(a). たかしは朝ご飯を食べずに学校へ行くことがある。

There are times when Takashi goes to school without eating breakfast.

(b). この店のミルクはたまに古いことがある。

Occasionally there are times when the milk in this store is old.

(c). アメリカで日本への土産を買うとそれが日本製であることがよくある。

Often there are times we find out that a souvenir we've bought in America for someone in Japan is made in Japan.

(d). 最近のいわゆる自然食品は本当の自然食品じゃないことがある。

There are times these days when so-called natural foods are not genuine natural foods.

Notes

1. Sentence informal nonpast ことがある expresses the idea that something happens from time to time.

2. Adverbs of frequency such as よく 'often', 時々 sometimes' and たまに 'occasionally', are sometimes used with this expression, as in Examples (b) and (c).

Basic Page 200

㊦ことが出来る・できる

Phrase

Doing something is possible	Can; be able to
【Related Expression: られる2】

Key Sentences

(ks). 田口さんは中国語を話すことが出来る・出来ます。

Mr. Taguchi can speak Chinese.

Formation

Vinformal nonpast	ことが出来る
	話すことが出来る	Someone can talk
	食べることが出来る	Someone can eat

Examples

(a). 新幹線に乗れば大阪まで三時間で行くことが出来る。

If you take the bullet train, you can get to Osaka in three hours.

(b). 小田さんは六つの時バッハを弾くことが出来た。

Oda was able to play Bach at the age of six.

(c). ジョンソンさんは日本語で手紙を書くことが出来る。

Mr. Johnson can write letters in Japanese.

Notes

1. Verb informal nonpast ことが出来る is a potential form meaning 'can' or 'be able to ~'. This potential form is used in the "は~が construction":

Noun (animate) は (~Verb informal nonpast) ことが出来る.

where Noun is an animate experiencer and the noun phrase ~Verb informal nonpast こと is a subject noun phrase nominalized by こと. The meaning of the structure is 'Noun can Verb' (Literally: 'For Noun, Verbing~ is possible.').

(⇨ は~が)

2. If a verb is closely associated with its direct object, as in (1) and (2) below, をVerbこと can be deleted.

ナンシーはピアノ(を弾くこと)が出来る。
Nancy can play the piano.

岡本さんはロシア語(を話すこと)が出来る。
Mr. Okamoto can speak Russian.

The をVerbこと deletion is unacceptable in the following sentence, however, because there is no close association between the verb and its direct object.

スミスさんは日本語の新聞{を読むこと/*∅}が出来る。
Mr. Smith can read Japanese newspapers.

【Related Expression】

A shorter potential form of verb, i.e., られる2 can replace the longer potential form ことが出来る without a change in basic meaning. Thus, Examples (a), (b) and (c) can be rewritten as [1], [2] and [3], respectively.

[1]

新幹線に乗れば大阪まで三時間で行ける。

[2]

小田は六つの時バッハが/を弾けた。

[3]

ジョンソンさんは日本語で手紙が書ける。

Basically, the difference between the shorter and the longer potential form is one of style; namely, the shorter version is more colloquial and less formal than the longer one.

Basic Page 202

㊦ことになる

Phrase

An event takes place as if spontaneously, irrespective of the speaker's volition.	It will be decided that~; come about~; be arranged that~; turn out that~
【Related Expression: ことにする】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 私は来年大阪に転勤することになった・なりました。

I'm going to be transferred to Osaka next year.

(ksb). 日本では車は道の左側を走ることになっている・います。

In Japan cars are supposed to be driven on the left side of the street.

Formation

Vinformal nonpast	ことに {なるなった}
	話すことに {なるなった}	It will be decided/it has been decided that someone will talk
	食べることに {なるなった}	It will be decide/it has been decided that someone will eat

Examples

(a). 私は来月から会社に勤めることになりました。

It has decided that I will be employed at a company beginning next month.

(b). 多分ジャンセンさんは日本で英語を教えることになるでしょう。

Perhaps it will turn out that Mr. Jansen will teach English in Japan.

(c). 来年六月に結婚することになりました。

It's been arranged that I will get married next June.

(d). スミスさんは日本で英語を教えることになっている。

Mr. Smith is supposed to teach English in Japan.

(e). 今日山田先生に会うことになっています。

Today (it's been arranged that) I'm seeing Professor Yamada.

Notes

1. This construction is used when some decision or arrangement is made by some unspecified agent. Semantically this construction is close to the passive, because the experiencer has no control over the event.

2. Even when the experiencer himself decides to do something, it sounds more indirect, and therefore, more humble for him to use this construction rather than to use ことにする 'decide to do'.

(⇨ ことにする)

3. ことになっている as in Key Sentence (B) and Examples, (d) and (e), indicates that some decision took place at some point in the past and that the result of that decision is still in effect, sometimes to the extent that it has become a rule or a custom.

Basic Page 204

㊦ことにする

Phrase

A volitional decision to so something is made.	Decide to
【Related Expression: ことに決める; ことになる】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 私は会社を辞めることにした・しました。

I decided to quit my company.

(ksb). 私は毎日三十分ぐらい運動をすることにしている・います。

I made it a rule to exercise for about 30 minutes every day.

Formation

(i)Vinformal nonpast	ことに{しる/した}
	話すことに{しる/した}	Someone decides/has decided to talk
	食べることに{しる/した}	Someone decides/has decided to eat

Examples

(a). 今年の夏は北海道を旅行することにしました。

I've decided to make a trip to Hokkaido this summer.

(b). 京都までバスで行くことにしましょう。

Let's (literally: decide to) go as far as Kyoto by bus.

(c). 毎日漢字を十覚えることにしました。

I've decided to memorize ten kanji every day.

(d). 私は肉をあまり食べないことにしている。

I make it a rule not to eat very much meat.

Notes

1. If one decides not to do something, the verb before ことにする should be negated as in:

ピクニックに行こうと思ったんですが，行かないことにしました。
I thought I would go to the picnic, but I've decided not to.

2. ことにする is a more complex version of Nounにする 'decide on Noun', 'make it Noun'. (⇨ にする) The complexity is due to a noun phrase nominalized by こと. (⇨ こと2) An example of Nounにする is given below:

A: 何にしますか。
What are you going to have (literally: decide on)?
B: ハンバーガーにします。
I'll have (literally: decide on) a hamburger.

【Related Expressions】

I. ことにする indicates someone's volitional decision, whereas ことになる indicates a non-volitional decision. Therefore, if you perceive a given decision to be your own decision, you should use ことにする; on the other hand, if you don't perceive a given decision to be your own, you should use ことになる instead. That is why ことにする and ことになる are very awkward in [1a] and [1b], respectively.

[1]

a. 私は大阪に転勤することになりました/???しました。
Literally: It has been decided that I will transfer to Osaka. (= I'm going to be transferred to Osaka.)
b. 僕はたばこをやめることにしました/???なりました。
I've decided to quit smoking.

II. ことにする and ことに決める 'determine to do something' are virtually identical in meaning. The difference is that the former is an idiom and, therefore, frequently used in colloquial speech, while the latter is appropriate when the speaker is talking about a relatively important decision in a rather decisive manner. Also, ことにする can be used to mean 'I hereby decide to ~' but ことに決める cannot- Thus, [1] below cannot be rephrased by ことに決める.

[1]

私は会社をやめることにします/???決めます。
I've decided to quit my company.

Basic Page 206

㊦ことは

Phrase

Speaking of proposition X, X is certainly true.

Indeed one does something alright, (but ~); indeed ~ (but ~); do ~ (but ~)

Key Sentences

(ks). 私はテニスをすることはする・しますが上手じゃない・上手じゃありません。

I do play tennis, but I am not good at it.

Formation

(i){V1/Adjective い1} informal	ことは{V2/Adjective い2}	Where {V1/Adjective い1}={V1/Adjective い2}
	話すことは{話す/話します}	Someone does talk
	話したことは{話した/話しました}	Someone did talk
	高いことは高い(です}	Something is expensive
	高かったことは高かった(です}	Something was expensive
(ii){Adjective な stem1 なこと/Noun1}	は{Adjective な stem2/Noun2} {だ /です}	Where {Adjective な stem1 / Noun1}={Adjective な stem2/Noun2}
	静かなことは静か{だ/です}	Something is quiet
	いい人はいい人{だ/です}	Someone is a good person
(iii){Adjective な stem1/ Noun1}	だったことは {Adjective な stem2/ Noun2} {だった/でした}	Where {Adjective な stem1/Noun1}={Adjective な stem2/ Noun2}
	静かだったことは静か{だった/でした}	Something was quiet
	いい人だったことは人{だった/でした}	Someone was a good person

Examples

(a). ジョーンズさんは日本語を話すことは話しますが、簡単なことしか言えません。

Mr. Jones does speak Japanese, but he can say only simply things.

(b). ボストンシンフォニーの切符は買えたことは買えましたが、大変悪い席でした。

I could buy a ticket for the Boston Symphony alright, but it was a very bad seat.

(c). この店は安いことは安いですが、ものが良くありません。

This store is inexpensive alright, but its goods are of poor quality.

(d). 今日の試験は難しかったことは難しかったが、よく出来た。

Today's test was indeed difficult, but I did well on it.

(e). 私のアパートは駅に近くて便利なことは便利ですが、家賃がとても高いです。

My apartment is close to the station and convenient alright, but the rent is very high.

(f). その女の子が好きだったことは好きでしたが、結婚はしなかったんです。

I did like the girl, but I didn't marry her.

(g). あの人はいい人はいいだったけれど頑固だったね。

He was indeed a good person, but he was stubborn, wasn't he?

Notes

1. In this construction, when the main verb is in the past tense the tense of the first verb/adjective can be changed into the nonpast tense. Thus, Examples (b) and (d) could be (1) and (2), respectively. The switched versions are more common in conversation.

ボストン・シンフォニーの切符は買えることは買えましたが大変悪い席でした。

今日の試験は難しいことは難しかったがよく出来た。

2. The verb/adjective/noun before ことは is normally marked in the informal form even if the final predicate is marked in the formal form.

3. Normally this construction is followed by a disjunctive conjunction such as が 'but', けれど 'but, although', and しかし 'but'.

Basic Page 209

㊦下さい・ください

Auxiliary Verb (Imperative Form)

An auxiliary verb which indicates a polite request.

Please do something

Key Sentences

(ksa). 日本語で書いて下さい。

Please write in Japanese.

(ksb). 英語を使わないで下さい。

Please don't use English.

Formation

(i)Vて	下さい
	話して下さい	Please talk
	食べて下さい	Please eat
(ii)Vnegative	ないで下さい
	話さないで下さい	Please don't talk
	食べないで下さい	Please don't eat

Examples

(a). この言葉の意味を教えて下さい。

Please tell me the meaning of this word.

(b). 夜遅く電話しないで下さい。

Please don't call me late at night.

Notes

1. ください is the polite imperative form of くださる, the honorific version of くれる 'give (me)' and is used as an auxiliary verb with the て form of verbs.

(⇨ くれる2)

2. どうぞ emphasizes the speaker's request and makes it more polite.

どうぞ教えてください。
Please tell me.

3. In very informal speech, ください may drop. (This form of request is often used by female speakers.)

a. 早く来て。
Please come quickly.
b. まだ帰らないで。
Please don't go home yet.

4. The negative question form, seen in (3), makes a request more polite.

あした八時に来てくださいませんか。
Would you please come at eight o'clock tomorrow?

5. くれ, the imperative form of くれる, can also be used in place of ください in informal male speech. {Verbて/Verb negative ないで}くれ is the least polite request form.

a. 僕と一緒に来てくれ。
Come with me (please).
b. アパートには来ないでくれ。
Don't come to my apartment (please).

Basic Page 211

㊦君・くん

Suffix

A suffix attached to the first or last name of a male equal or to the first or last name of a person whose status or rank is lower than the speaker's.

【Related Expression: 様 (ちゃん; さん)】

Formation

(i) Last name	君
	山田君	Mr. Yamada
(ii) First name	君
	太郎君	Taro
(iii) Last name first name	君
	山田太郎君	Mr. Taro Yamada

Examples

(a). もし、もし、一郎君いますか。

Hello, is Ichiro in?

(b). 田口君が来年結婚するそうだ。

I heard that Mr. Taguchi will get married next year.

(c). 田口一郎君、昇進おめでとう。

Mr. Ichiro Taguchi, congratulations on your promotion.

Notes

A male may address females of lower rank by 君. A female student may address males of equal or lower rank by 君. Such addresses are commonly used in situations such as schools and companies.

Basic Page 212

㊦くらい

Particle

Approximate quantity or extent.	Approximately; about
【Related Expression: ごろ; ほど; (ばかり)】

Key Sentences

(ks). 東京からサンフランシスコまで飛行機で九時間くらいかかる・かかります。

It's about nine hours by plane from Tokyo to San Francisco.

Formation

(i)Number-counter	くらい
	四冊くらい	About four volumes
	百人くらい	About a hundred people
(ii)Demonstrateive {pronoun/adjective}
	{これ /この}くらい	About this much/to about this extent
	{それ /その}くらい	About that much/to about that extent
	{あれ /あの}くらい	(Referring to an object that is removed from both the speaker and the hearer) about that much/to about that extent
	{どれ /どの}くらい	About how much?/to about what extent?
(iii)Interrogative pronoun	いくらくらい	About how much?

Examples

(a). A:その車はいくらぐらいでしたか。 B:百五十万円くらいでした。

A: About how much was that car? B: It was about 1,500,000 yen.

(b). スミスさんは京都に四ヶ月くらい行っていました。

Mr. Smith was in Kyoto for about four months.

(c). 山田ぐらい英語が出来れば楽しいでしょうね。

It must be fun to be able to speak English as well as Mr. Yamada (literally: to the extent of Mr. Yamada).

(d). 私だってそれぐらいのことは分かりますよ。

Even I can understand that sort of thing (literally: things of that extent).

Notes

くらい may be freely replaced by ぐらい without a change in meaning.

Basic Page 213

㊦呉れる・くれる (1)

Verb (Group 2)

Someone whose status is not higher than the speaker's gives something to the first person or to someone with whom the speaker empathises.	Give
【Related Expression: あげる1; もらう】

Key Sentences

(ks). 大川さんは(私に)本を呉れた・呉れました。

Mr. Okawa gave me a book.

Examples

(a). ビルは(君に)何を呉れましたか。

What did Bill give to you?

(b). 川村さんは私の娘にレコードを呉れた。

Mr. Kawamura gave my daughter a record.

Notes

1. くれる, which is one of a set of giving and receiving verbs, means 'give'. Unlike the English 'give', however, くれる is used only when the receiver is the first person or someone with whom the speaker empathizes (usually a member of the speakers in-group). Thus, (1) is unacceptable. (If the speaker empathizes with Mr. Ito, (1) is considered acceptable. Addressing someone as "Mr. Ito", however, is too formal in such a situation.)

*川口さんはいつも伊藤さんにたばこをくれる。
Mr. Kawaguchi always gives Mr. Ito cigarettes.

2. When the giver is the first person, くれる cannot be used.

*私は中島さんに酒をくれた。
I gave Mr. Nakajima sake.

In this case, あげる must be used.

私は中島さんに酒をあげた。
I gave Mr. Nakajima sake.

Note that when the subject is the first person, くれる sentences are not grammatical even if the receiver is someone the speaker empathizes with, as in (4).

*私は兄さんにチョコレートをくれた。
I gave my elder brother chocolates.

The reason for this is as follows: くれる requires the receiver's point of view when describing an event, and when an event involves the first person, the event is normally described from the first person's point of view. Therefore, if the first person is the giver in くれる sentences, a viewpoint conflict arises, making the sentences ungrammatical. (In this case, あげる must be used.)

3. The polite (honorific) version of くれる is 下さる (Group 1 verb; The ます form is 下さいます). Example:

先生は(私に)本をくださいました。
My teacher gave me a book.

4. The indirect object is often omitted if it refers to the speaker in declarative sentences or to the hearer in interrogative sentences.

(See Key Sentence and Example (a).)

【Related Expressions】

I. [1] compares the differences among the three giving and receiving verbs あげる, くれる and もらう in terms of viewpoint when A gives X to B. The eye sign ∀ indicates which viewpoint the sentence requires.

[1]

a. AはBにXをあげた。
__∀ (or neutral)
[A gave X to B.]

b. AはBにXをくれた。
_____∀
[A gave X to B.]

c. BはAにXをもらった。
__∀
[B got X from A.]

If the first person or a person the speaker empathizes with is involved in a giving-receiving situation, the Noun Phrase which refers to him must occur in the positions with ∀. The reason for this is as follows: When the first person or someone the speaker empathizes with is involved in a giving-receiving situation, the situation is normally described from his viewpoint, and if the Noun Phrase which refers to him occurs in the positions without a viewpoint conflict arises.

II. [2] summarizes the plain forms and polite forms of giving and receiving verbs:

[2]

(I) give (someone)	(someone) gives (me)	(I) get/receive (from someone)
－ p o l i t e n e s s ＋	Plain form	①やる to someone of lower status ②あげる	②くれる	①もらう
Polite form	②差し上げる very humble	①くださる honorific ますform: くださいます	①いただく

Note the different degree of politeness in each verb (particularly, やる, あげる and 差し上げる).

Basic Page 216

㊦呉れる・くれる (2)

Auxiliary Verb (Group 2)

Someone does something as a favour to the first person or to someone with whom the speaker empathises.	Do something (for me or someone); do me or someone a favour by doing something
【Related Expression: あげる2; くれる1; もらう2】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 父は私にカメラを買って呉れた・呉れました。

My father bought a camera for me.

(ksb). 道男は私を慰めて呉れた・呉れました。

Michio consoled me.

Formation

Vて	くれる
	話してくれる	Someone (will) talks for my sake
	食べてくれる	Someone (will) eats for my sake

Examples

(a). 母は(私に)ケーキを焼いて呉れた。

My mother baked a cake for me.

(b). ウォーカーさんは私の息子に英語を教えて呉れている。

Ms. Walker is kindly teaching my son English.

(c). 子供達は(あなたに)何をして呉れましたか。

What did your children do for you?

Notes

1. くれる is used as an auxiliary verb with Verbて. The meaning of Verbてくれる is "someone does the first person (or someone with whom the speaker empathizes) a favor by doing something". Like sentences with くれる as a main verb, sentences with Verbてくれる are stated from the viewpoint of the person who receives the favor and the receiver must be the first person or someone the speaker empathizes with (usually a member of the speaker's in-group〉. Thus, (1a) is grammatical, but (1b) is not.

(⇨ くれる1)

a. 知らない人が私にコーラを買ってくれた。
A stranger bought cola for me.
b. *私は知らない人にコーラを買ってくれた。
I bought cola for a stranger.

(In the case in (1b), あげる 'give' must be used. (⇨ あげる2)) Note that if the subject is the first person, sentences with Verbてくれる are ungrammatical even if the person who receives the favor is someone the speaker empathizes with, as in (2).

(See くれる1, Note 2.)

*私は母にケーキを焼いてくれた。
I baked a cake for my mother.

In this case, あげる must be used.

(⇨ あげる2)

2. As in Key Sentence (B), if the person receiving the benefit of the action is the direct object, the indirect object is omitted. Therefore, (3a) and (3b) are ungrammatical.

a. *道男は私に私をなぐさめてくれた。
b. *道男は私になぐさめてくれた。

3. If the main verb of the sentence is intransitive, the person receiving the benefit of the action is not marked by に.Therefore, (4) is ungrammatical.

*みんなは私に働いてくれた。
Everybody worked for me.

In this case, の為に 'for the sake of' is used, as in (5),

(⇨ ため)

みんなは私のために働いてくれた。
Everybody worked for my sake.

4. The polite (honorific) version of Verbてくれる is Verbてくださる. Example:

先生は私に本を貸してくださった。
My teacher kindly lent me a book.

5. Note that in sentences like "Mr. A taught me ~", "Mr. A bought me ~" and "Mr. A lent me ~", which usually imply that the speaker received some sort of favor, Verbてくれる (or くださる) should be used, though in English this is not usually explicitly expressed. In Japanese, without the auxiliary verbs くれる or くださる, such sentences don't convey the idea that the speaker received a favor.

6. The indirect object is often omitted if it refers to the speaker in declarative sentences or to the hearer in interrogative sentences.

(See Key Sentence (A), Examples (a) and (c).)

【Related Expressions】

あげる, くれる and もらう and all their polite and non-polite versions are used as auxiliary verbs with Verbて. (Auxiliary verbs あげる, くれる and もらう are explained under あげる2, くれる2 and もらう2, respectively.) When these verbs are used as auxiliary verbs, the same viewpoint rules stated in くれる1 Related Expression I apply, except that there is no neutral viewpoint.

Basic Page 219

㊦来る・くる (1)

Verb (Irregular)

Someone or something moves in a direction towards the speaker or the speaker's viewpoint or area of empathy.	Come; visit; show up
【Related Expression: 行く1】

Key Sentences

(ks). 田中さんが明日うちへ・に来る・来ます。

Mr. Tanaka will come to my house tomorrow.

Examples

(a). ナンシーは昨日パーティーに来ましたか。

Did Nancy come to the party yesterday?

(b). 来週木口さんが名古屋に来るそうだ。

I was told that Mr. Kiguchi is coming to Nagoya next week.

(c). もし、もし、家内が来たら直ぐ帰るように言って下さい。

Hello, please tell my wife to come home right away if she (literally: comes to see you) drops by.

(d). 今日はまだ新聞が来ない。

Today's newspaper hasn't come yet.

(e). 僕の研究室に明日来て下さい。

Please come to my office tomorrow.

Notes

から commonly describes a movement towards a place where the speaker physically exists, as in Key Sentence and Example (d). However, it can also describe a movement in a direction where the speaker has placed his viewpoint or where he feels strong empathy. For example, in Example (a) the speaker, who apparently did not attend the party, is taking the viewpoint of the hearer, who did attend. In Example (c) the speaker is phoning and is not at the hearer's house, yet he is taking the hearer's viewpoint, a typical example of the psychological fusion between speaker and hearer. In Example (b), it is possible that the speaker lives nearer Nagoya than Mr. Kiguchi does and feels that Mr. Kiguchi is entering his (the speaker's) territory or area of strong empathy. And again, in Example (e), the use of 来る indicates that the speaker's office as well as his house can be considered his territory or area of empathy.

【Related Expression】

If a movement is towards a place where the speaker can place his viewpoint, 来る is used, but if a movement is towards a place where the speaker cannot place his viewpoint, 行く is used.

(⇨ 行く1)

In Examples (a) and (c) both 来る and 行く are acceptable. The difference is that the use of 来る shifts the focus of the sentence to the hearer's viewpoint while 行く shifts it to the speaker's viewpoint.

Basic Page 221

㊦来る・くる (2)

Auxiliary Verb (Irregular)

An auxiliary verb which indicates the beginning of some process of continuation of some action up to a current point of time.	Come about; grow; come to; begin to
【Related Expression: ~始める】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 私はコンピューターが少し分かって来た・来ました。

Now I have begun to understand computers.

(ksb). 私は色々日本の歴史書を読んで来た・来ました。

Up to now I've been reading various Japanese histories.

Formation

(i)Vて	来る
	膨らんで来る	Something begins/has begun to swell
	大きくなって来る	Something begins/has begun to grow big

Examples

(a). テニスをしていたら急に雨が降って来た。

Suddenly, while we were playing tennis, it began to rain.

(b). 午後から頭が痛くなって来ました。

My head began to ache in the afternoon./ My headache started in the afternoon.

(c). 私はこの頃太って来ました。

I've started to gain weight these days.

(d). あの子はこの頃随分奇麗になって来たね。

That girl has become very pretty lately, hasn't she?

(e). 今までたくさん本を読んで来ましたが、これからも読んで行くつもりです。

Up to now I have read quite a few books and I intend to read from now on, too.

(f). 今まで遊んで来ましたが、これからは一生懸命勉強するつもりです。

Up to now I haven't been working hard (literally: have been playing), but from now on I intend to work very hard.

Notes

1. Verbて来る expresses inception as in Examples (a) through (d), or continuation of something up to a current point of time, as in Examples (e) and (f). In the former case the Verb is a verb that indicates a process that takes some time to complete, such as なる 'become', 分かる 'understand', 太る 'gain weight', 痩せる 'lose weight', 膨らむ 'swell' and 縮む 'shrink'. In the latter case the Verb is any non-punctual verb.

2. In the following sentences 来る is used more as a full verb than as an auxiliary verb. The meaning of Verbて来る is the same as that of Verbて (i.e., 'Verb and') and of 来る.

(⇨ 来る1)

私は会社にバスに乗って来ます。
Literally: I ride a bus and come to my company. (= I come to work by bus.)

四時までには帰って来てください。
Literally: Please return and come here by 4:00. (= Please come back by 4:00.)

おいしいケーキを買って来ました。
Literally: I bought a delicious cake and came here. (= I bought you a delicious cake.)

友達をうちに連れて来た。
I brought my friends to my house.

あの本持って来た？
Did you bring that book (Literally: carry that book and come)?

ちょっと見て来るよ。
Literally: I'll just look and come back here. (= I'll just go and take a look at it.)

傘を取って来ます。
Literally: I'll get my umbrella and come back here. (= I'll go and get my umbrella.)

3. Note that the experiencer of the inception process or the continuation of the action must be the speaker himself or someone with whom the speaker empathizes. In other words, in this usage, what is expressed by Verbて来る involves the speaker in a very intimate way.

【Related Expression】

When 来る2 means inception (the beginning of a process, that is), it is very close to Verbます始める 'begin to ~' Examples (a) through (d) can all be paraphrased using Verbます始める. However, 来る implies that something happens to the speaker or whomever he can empathize with, whereas Verbます始める lacks the speakers involvement with a process of inception.

(⇨ 始める)

Basic Page 224

㊦まだ

Adverb

Someone or something is in some state he or it was in some time ago.	Still; (not) yet
【Related Expression: もう】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 木村君はまだ昼ご飯を食べている・います。

Mr. Kimura is still eating his lunch.

(ksb). 太田さんはまだそのことを知らない・知りません。

Mr. Oota still doesn't know about it.

Examples

(a). お酒はまだありますか。

Do you still have sake?

(b). 私はまだ日本へ行ったことがない。

I have not been to Japan yet.

(c). A:もう昼ご飯を食べましたか。 B:いえ、まだ食べていません。/いい、まだです。

A: Have you eaten your lunch yet? B: No, I haven't eaten it yet./No, not yet.

Notes

1. まだ expresses the idea that someone or something is in the same state that he or it was in some time ago. In affirmative sentences, まだ always corresponds to 'still'. In negative sentences, however, it corresponds to 'yet' when an action has not yet been taken, and 'still' in other situations, as in Example (c) and Key Sentence (B), respectively.

2. The abbreviated sentence seen in B2 of Example (c) is used only when the response to a question is a negative one.

【Related Expression】

The concept which まだ expresses is opposite to that of もう. [1] illustrates the difference between the idea conveyed by まだ and the one conveyed by もう.

Basic Page 225

㊦まで

Particle

A particle to indicate a spatial, temporal or quantitative limit or an unexpected animate/inanimate object.	As far as; till; up to; until; through; even
【Related Expression: までに】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 昨日は三時から五時まで友達とテニスをした・しました。

Yesterday I played tennis from three to five with my friend.

(ksb). 東京から京都まで新幹線で三時間かかる・かかります。

It takes three hours by bullet train from Tokyo to Kyoto.

(ksc). 私が行くまでうちで待っていて下さい。

Please wait at home until I get there.

(ksd). このホールは二千人まで入れる・入れます。

This hall can hold up to 2,000 people.

(kse). あの人は鼠やスカンクは勿論蛇まで好きだ・好きです。

He even likes snakes, not to mention rats and skunks.

Formation

(i) Noun (time/location)	まで
	五時/学校まで	Until five/as far as school
(ii)Vinformal nonpast	まで
	話すまで	Until someone talks/talked
	食べるまで	Until someone eats/ate
(iii)Number-counter	まで
	四十人まで	Up to forty people
	五枚まで	Up to five sheets of paper

Examples

(a). アメリカ人は毎週月曜日から金曜日まで働く。

Americans work every week from Monday through Friday.

(b). 駅から大学までは歩いて十分ぐらいです。

It's about 10 minutes from the station to the university on foot.

(c). スミスさんは刺身は勿論、納豆まで食べるんですよ。

Mr. Smith even eats fermented soybeans, not to mention raw fish.

(d). 飛行機が出るまでロビーで友達と話していた。

Until the plane left I was talking with my friend in the lobby.

Notes

'Xまで' and 'until X' do not have the same meaning when X represents a duration of time. For example, in (1) 来週の月曜日まで means that the speaker will be absent next Monday; therefore, the corresponding English is 'until next Tuesday'.

私は来週の月曜日まで休みます。
I'll be absent until next Tuesday.

Basic Page 228

㊦までに

Particle

A particle that indicates a time limit on/for an action.	By; by the time (when)
【Related Expression: までに; までで; 前に】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 私は十時までに帰る・帰ります。

I'll come home by 10 o'clock.

(ksb). 学校が始まるまでにこの本を読んでおいて下さい。

Please read this book (in advance) by the time school starts.

Formation

(i)Noun (time)	までに
	五時までに	By five o'clock
	明日までに	By tomorrow
(ii)Vinformal nonpast	までに
	話すまでに	By the time someone talks/talked
	食べるまでに	By the time someone eats/ate

Examples

(a). A:何時までに空港に行けばいいでしょうか。 B:出発の一時間前までに来て下さい。

A: By what time should I go to the airport? B: Please come one hour before departure.

(b). 僕はこのレポートを一月二十日までに書き上げなければならないんだ。

I have to finish writing this paper by January 20.

(c). ジェット機がパリに着くまでに本を三冊読んでしまいました。

By the time the jet got to Paris, I had finished reading three books.

Notes

【Related Expressions】

I. までに cannot be used with a verb that indicates a continuous action. Instead, まで 'continuously until/to X' is used.

[1]

山田は来月まで/*までにいる。
Yamada will stay here until/*by next month.

[2]

私は五時まで/*までに待っている。
I'll be waiting until/*by five o'cIock.

II. When までに 'by' is preceded by an informal nonpast verb, it may be replaced by 前に 'before'. The difference between the two is the same as the English 'by' vs. 'before'. Thus, if までに in Example (c) is replaced by 前に, the sentence means 'Before the jet got to Paris I had finished reading three books.' More examples of the different uses follow:

[3]

a. 来月までに/*前にこの仕事をします。
I will finish this work by/*before next month.
b. 授業前に/*までに郵便局に行く。
I will go to the post office before/*by class.

III. までで, a particle which means 'something continues until/up to X (and stops at X, although it can continue beyond X)' is similar to までに. The differences in meaning can be seen in the examples below. In [4] までに is unacceptable because Lesson 10 is not the limit of domain (which is Lesson 20). In [5] までで is unacceptable because no important items appear after Lesson 10.

[4]

この教科書は二十課までありますが今学期は十課までで/*までに終わります。
There are up to twenty lessons in this textbook, but this semester we will stop at Lesson 10.

[5]

この教科書は二十課までありますが、大事なことは十課までに/???までで全部出て来ます。
There are (literally: up to) twenty lessons in this textbook, but the important items are introduced (literally: appear) by Lesson 10.

Basic Page 231

㊦前に・まえに

Conjunction

In front of or before some situation comes about.	Before; in front of
【Related Expression: までに; うちに】
【Antonym Expression: あとで; 後ろに】

Key Sentences

(ksa). ジャクソンさんは日本へ行く前に日本語を勉強した・しました。

Mr. Jackson studied Japanese before he went to Japan.

(ksb). 旅行の前に風邪を引いた・引きました。

Before the trip I caught a cold.

(ksc). 駅の前に煙草屋がある・あります。

There is a tobacco shop in front of the station.

Formation

(i)Vinformal nonpast	前に
	話す前に	Before someone talks/talked
	食べる前に	Before someone eats/ate
(ii)Noun	の前に
	朝ご飯の前に	Before breakfast

Examples

(a). 日本人はご飯を食べる前に「いただきます。」と言う。

The Japanese say "Itadakimasu" (literally: I humbly receive (this food)) before eating their meals.

(b). テイラーさんは日本へ行く前にハワイに寄りました。

Mr. Taylor stopped in Hawaii before he went to Japan.

(c). 私は試験の前に映画を見に行った。

Before the exam I went to see a movie.

Notes

1. 前に is used when the speaker knows when something is going to take place. Thus, the following uses of 前に are marginal.

?雨が降る前に帰りましょう。
Let's go home before it rains.

??忘れる前に言っておこう。
I'll say it (in advance) before I forget.

2. The verb before 前に is always nonpast, even if the tense of the main verb is past, as in Example (b).

【Related Expression】

When the speaker knows that something is about to happen but does not know exactly when it is to happen, うちに 'before' is used instead of 前に. Thus, 前に in (1) and (2) of Note 1 should be replaced by ないうちに, as in [1] and [2].

(⇨ うちに)

[I]

雨が降らないうちに帰りましょう。
Let's go home before it rains.

[2]

忘れないうちに言っておこう。
I'll say it (in advance) before I forget.

Basic Page 233

㊦毎・まい

Prefix

A prefix which means 'every (unit of time)'.	Every; per
【Related Expression: ごとに】

Key Sentences

(ks). 私は毎日一マイル泳ぐ・泳ぎます。

I swim one mile every day.

Formation

Noun of time	毎
	毎朝	Every morning
	毎月	Every month

Examples

(a). 弘は毎晩道子に電話しているそうだ。

I heard that Hiroshi calls Michiko every evening.

(b). 台風は毎時二十キロの速さで北に進んでいる。

The typhoon is moving north at a speed of twenty kilometers per hour.

(c). 私は毎年一度は日本へ行く。

I go to Japan at least once every year.

(d). ジーンは毎食サラダを食べる。

Jean eats salad at every meal.

Notes

1. 毎 is prefixed to nouns which express a unit of time. Nouns like 食 'meal' can also be used, as seen in Example (d). In this case, 食 implies the time at which one eats. However, the following phrases are all unacceptable because the nouns following 毎 do not indicate a time or period of time. (The correct expressions are given in parentheses.)

(1)

a.	*毎人	every person	(すべての人人はみんな)
b.	*毎先生	every teacher	(すてべの先生先生はみんな)
c.	*毎家	every house	(すべての家家はみんな)

毎 cannot be used when nouns of time are preceded by numbers; thus, the following phrases are unacceptable.

(⇨ ごとに)

(2)

a.	*毎三日	every three days
b.	*毎二年	every other year
c.	*毎一週	every one week

[See Related Expresssion [1a] for correct expressions.]

2. ごとに is usually used with Japanese-origin words of one or two syllables or shorter Chinese-origin words. Thus, compounds like those in (3) are awkward.

a.	???毎休み	every holiday
b.	???毎クリスマス	every Christmas
c.	*毎子供の日	every Children's Day

[See Related Expression [1b] for correct expressions.]

【Related Expression】

ごとに also means 'every' but its usage differs from that of 毎. First, ごとに is not a prefix but a suffix. Second, it is used with nouns of time preceded by numbers or specific dates, as seen in [1].

(⇨ ごとに)

a.	Period of time
三日ごとに	every three days
一時間ごとに	every hour
b.	Specific date
クリスマスごとに	every Christmas
子供の日ごとに	Every Children's Day

(Complementiser phrase)

日ごとに　

day after day;　

年ごとに　

year after year

Third, unlike 毎, ごとに can also be used with other noun phrases, as seen in [2].

[2]

ジョンは会う人ごとに日本語であいさつをした。
John greeted every person he met in Japanese.

Basic Page 236

㊦まま

Noun

An already given situation or condition remains unaltered.	As it is; unchanged; undisturbed; leave as is; remain
【Related Expression: ないで; ずに】】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 弟はテレビをつけたまま寝てしまった・しまいました。

My younger brother went to sleep leaving the TV on.

(ksb). 弟はテレビをつけたままにしておいた・おきました。

My younger brother left the TV on.

(ksc). 弟はテレビをつけたままだ・です。

My younger brother has left the TV on.

(ksd). この部屋は昨日のままだ・です。

This room is as it was yesterday.

(kse). ここはこのままにしておく・おきます。

I'll leave this place as it is.

(ksf). テレビがついたままになっている・います。

The TV was turned on and is still on.

(ksg). 帽子を被ったままの学生が教室にいた・いました。

A student who kept his hat on was in the classroom.

Formation

(i)Vinformal past	まま
	(電気を)つけたまま	Leaving (the light) on
(ii)Adjective い	まま
	大きいまま	As something is big
(iii){Adjective な stem/ Noun の}	まま
	不便なまま	Leaving something is inconvenient
	昔のまま	Leaving something as it was

Examples

(a). 電気をつけたまま寝てしまいました。

I fell asleep leaving the light on.

(b). ビールを買ったまま飲まなかった。

I bought beer, but didn't drink it.

(c). 聞いたままを友達に話しました。

I told my friend exactly what I heard.

(d). あの人はあれからずっと寝たままだ。

He's been in bed (literally: all along) since then.

(e). 高山さんはアメリカへ行ったまま帰らなかった。

Mr. Takayama went to America never to return.

(f). 車のエンジンをかけたままにしておいた。

I left the car engine on.

(g). 今のままにしておいてください。

Please leave it as it is now.

Notes

1. The verb before まま has to be nonpast if the verb is negative as in (1).

a.ドアを閉めないまま出かけてしまった。
I left my house with the door open.
b. さようならの挨拶もしないまま行ってしまった。
She went away without even saying goodbye.

If a verb that precedes ままを is non-vontional, the verb can be nonpast even if the main transitive verb is past, as shown in (2):

a. 言われる/言われたままを払った。
I paid money as I was told to.
b. 思っている/いたままを書いて見た。
I wrote exactly as I felt.

2. When まま is followed directly by a verb (other than する) as in Key Sentence (A) and Example (a), (b) and (e), で can be inserted between まま and the verb. Thus, Key Sentence (A) can be rephrased as follows:

弟はテレビをつけたままで寝てしまった。
Literally: My younger brother left the TV on, and went to sleep. (= My younger brother went to sleep leaving the TV on.)

The difference between the まま version and the ままで version is minimal; the latter sounds more like a coordinate construction as illustrated by the literary translation of (3).

【Related Expressions】

Verb informal nonpast negative まま can be paraphrased using ないで or ずに, as in:

[1]

ドアを閉めないまま/ないで/ずに出かけてしまった。
He left his house with the door open.

The まま version focuses on the unaltered situation, but the ないで/ずに versions focus primarily on the negative aspect of the verb. The translation of the former and the latter are 'He left with the door open' and 'He left without closing the door.', respectively.

(⇨ ないで)

Basic Page 240

㊦ましょう

Auxiliary

A verb ending which indicates the first person's volition or invitation in formal speech.	I/We will do something; Let's do something.
【Related Expression: ませんか】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 私が彼に話しましょう。

I will talk to him.

(ksb). 映画に行きましょう。

Let's go to a movie.

Formation

Vます	ましょう
	話しましょう	I/we will talk; let's talk
	食べましょう	I/we will eat; let's eat

Examples

(a). 私達が手伝いましょう。

We will help you.

(b). 私が行きましょうか。

Shall I go there?

(c). ビールを飲みましょう。

Let's drink beer.

(d). 車で行きましょうか。

Shall we go by car?

Notes

1. ましょう is a formal verb ending which is used to express the first person's volition (Key Sentence (A), Examples (a) and (b)) or invitation (Key Sentence (B), Examples (c) and (d)).

2. The sentence in the Key Sentence (A) pattern, which includes the subject Xが, implies that 'not others but X will do something'. If the sentence doesn't carry such an implication but simply states the first person's volition, the subject is usually omitted. Compare the following sentences:

a. その鞄を持ちましょう。
I'll carry that bag.
b. 私がその鞄を持ちましょう。
I will carry that bag.

3. In invitation situations like Key Sentence (B), the subject is usually omitted. (Examples (c) and (d))

4. ましょう with the question marker か asks whether the hearer will accept the speaker's volitional action or invitation. (Examples (b) and (d))

5. Negative volition is usually expressed by simple nonpast negatives, as seen in (2).

私はパーティーに行きません。
I won't go to the party.

(The negative volitional ending まい, as in 行くまい 'won't go', is not commonly used in modern colloquial Japanese.)

6. "Let's not do something" is expressed by different constructions.

ましょう

Example:

パ一テイ一に行くのはやめましょう/よしましょう。
Let's not go to the party.

ましょう

(⇨ おく)

Example:

フレッドには言わないでおきましょう。
Let's not tell Fred.

7. In indirect speech or in sentences with verbs like 思う 'think' and 決心する 'make up one's mind', the informal volitional form is used.

村田さんはコーヒーを飲もうと言った。
Mr. Murata suggested we drink coffee.

私は来年日本へ行こうと思います。
I think I will go to Japan next year.

8. Unlike English, in Japanese the volitional future and the simple future are expressed by different forms. Thus, "I think I will see a movie." is expressed by either (7) or (8).

私は映画を見ようと思う。

私は映画を見ると思う。

(7) is an example of the volitional future, in which the speakers volition is expressed, while (8) is an example of the simple future.

【Related Expression】

An invitation by the speaker can also be expressed through negative questions，as in [1].

[1]

パーティーに行きませんか。
Wouldn't you (like to) go to the party?

In invitation situations, negative questions are more polite than ましょう sentences because the former are asking whether or not the hearer will do something and, therefore, are hearer-oriented, while the latter do not consider the hearer's volition and are more speaker-oriented.

Basic Page 243

㊦見える・みえる

Verb (Group 2)

Someone or something is passively/spontaneously visible.	Be visible; (can) see; look~
【Related Expression: 見られる】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 私(に)は遠くの物がよく見える・見えます。

To me distant objects are very visible.

(ksb). 窓から(は)海が見える・見えます。

From the window the ocean is visible.

(ksc). 今日は山が近く見える・見えます。

Today the mountains look near.

Examples

(a). 私には木の上の小さな鳥が見えた。

I could see small birds on the tree.

(b). 東京タワーからは東京の町がよく見える。

From Tokyo Tower you can get a good view of the towns of Tokyo.

(c). あの人は年よりずっと若く見える。

He looks much younger than his age.

(d). 女の人は夜奇麗に見える。

Women look beautiful at night.

(e). 中島さんは学生に見える。

Mr. Nakajima looks like a student.

Notes

1. 見える can mean 'look ~' if it is preceded by the adverbial form of an Adjective い as in Example (c) or of an Adjective な as in Example (d) or by a Nounに as in Example (e).

2. 見える can be used as a polite version of 来る 'come' as in:

お母さん、お客さんが見えたよ。
Mom, we have company!

学会には上田先生も見えた。
Literally: To the academic meeting appeared Professor Ueda, too. (= Professor Ueda also attended the academic conference.)

見える can be used as an honorific polite verb because it is a more indirect reference to a superior's act of 'coming'. In other words, the speaker is referring to a superior's appearance as if it were a spontaneous, natural phenomenon of 'visibility'.

3. A visible object is marked by が, not by を.

【Related Expression】

見える is different from the regular potential form of 見る, i.e., 見られる, in that 見える indicates that something or someone is passively visible regardless of the volition of the speaker; 見られる, on the other hand, indicates that the speaker or the subject of the sentence can see something or someone actively rather than passively. Thus,

[1]

僕は目が見えない/*見られない。
I'm blind.

[2]

テレビを買ったからテレビが見られる/*見える。
Because I bought a TV I can now watch TV.

[3]

あの映画はどこで見られます/*見えますか。
Where can we see the movie?

[4]

よく見えない/*見られないからステージの近くに行こう。
We can't see it well, so let's go closer to the stage.

[5]

隣に高いビルが立ったので山が見え/見られなくなった。
visible any more/we can't see the mountains any more.

Note that in [5] both 見える and 見られる are possible, depending on how the speaker perceives the visible object; if he thinks that the situation is beyond his control and has to give up looking at the mountains, he uses 見える; if not, he uses 見られる.

Basic Page 246

㊦みる

Auxiliary Verb (Group 2)

Do something to see what it's like or what will happen.	Do something and see; try to do something
【Related Expression: ようとする】

Key Sentences

(ks). 私は日本の小説を読んでみる・みます。

I will read Japanese novels (to see what they are like).

Formation

Vて	みる
	話してみる	Try to talk
	食べてみる	Try to eat

Examples

(a). 面白そうなコンサートだったので行ってみました。

Since it seemed interesting, I went to the concert (to see what it was like).

(b). ここの刺身は美味しいですよ。食べてみますか。

Sashimi here is good. Will you try it?

Notes

みる is used as an auxiliary verb with Verbて meaning 'make an attempt at doing something to see what it is like or what will happen'.

【Related Expression】

A similar expression, ようとする, means simply 'try to do something'. When these two expressions are used in the past tense, however, their meanings are not the same. For example, [1a] means that Mr. Brown did put on Tom's undershirt, whereas [1b] means that Mr. Brown tried to put it on, with the implication that he couldn't or didn't actually do it.

[1]

a. ブラウンさんはトムのシャツを蒼てみた。
Mr. Brown tried Tom's undershirt on.
b. ブラウンさんはトムのシャツを着ようとした。
Mr. Brown tried to put Tom's undershirt on.

Basic Page 247

㊦も

Particle

A particle which indicates that a proposition about the preceeding element X is also true when another similar proposition is true.

Too; also; (not) ~ either

Key Sentences

(ksa). 私も学生だ・です。

I, too, am a student.

(ksb). 私はスペイン語も話す・話します。

I speak Spanish, too.

(ksc). 私は村山さんにもプレゼントを上げる・上げます。

I will give a present to Mr. Murayama, too.

Formation

(i)Noun も	私も	I, too/me (as direct object), too
(ii)Noun (particle) も	日本(に)も	In/to Japan, too
	アメリカ(へ)も	To America too
(iii)Noun Particle も	先生にも	To/for the teacher, too (indirect object)
	フランスからも	From France
	イギリスでも	In England, too
	友達とも	With my friend, too

Examples

(a). ハートさんは日本へ行った。ルイスさんも(日本へ)行った。

Mr. Hart went to Japan. Mr. Lewis also went to Japan.

(b). 林さんはテニスをします。(彼は)ゴルフもします。

Mr. Hayashi plays tennis. He plays golf, too.

(c). この町では新しい魚が買えません。隣の町でも(新しいか魚が)買えません。

You can't buy fresh fish in this town. You can't buy it in the next town, either.

Notes

1. In general, when the element Xも appears in a sentence, a related sentence with the element Y (plus particle if necessary) in place of Xも is presupposed. For example, when a speaker states (1), a sentence like (2) is presupposed.

私はニューヨークへも行った。
I went to New York, too.

私はボストンへ行った。
I went to Boston.

Thust when Xも appears in a sentence, Xも is always the element under focus in that sentence.

2. There are cases in which Xも is used, althougn it does not exactly replace the element Y in the presupposed sentence. For example, (3b) can be spoken after (3a).

a. 私の家は居間がせまい。
The living room of my house is small.
b. それに台所も不便だ。
On top of that, the kitchen is inconvenient, too.

In this case, the speaker implies that his house is inconvenient when he says (3a), and this implication is the presupposition of (3b), where the speaker elaborates on the inconvenience.

3. "XもAだ" cannot be used to mean 'X is also A' in the sense that X is A as well as something else. "XもAだ" can be used only when "Yは/がAだ" presupposed. Thus, (4) does not mean (5). (In fact, (4) is nonsensical if it is stated by the same person.)

私は医者だ。 *私も先生だ。

I am a (medical) doctor. I am also a teacher.

The idea that someone is a doctor as well as a teacher is expressed as in (6).

私は医者だ。そして先生でもある。
I am a (medical) doctor and also a teacher.

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㊦も (2)

Particle

A marker which indicates emphasis.

Even; as many/much/long/...as; (not) even (one); (not) any

Key Sentences

(ksa). グレーさんはこんな難しい漢字も読める・読めます。/ハリスさんはこんな易しい漢字も読めない・読めません。

Mr. Gray can read even difficult kanji like this./ Mr. Harris cannot read even easy kanji like this.

(ksb). 私は漢字を八千も知っている・います。

I know as many as eight thousand kanji.

(ksc). 私は漢字を一つも知らない・知りません。

I don't know even one kanji.

(ksd). 私は何も食べなかった・食べませんでした。

I didn't eat anything.

(kse). ナンシーは私の話を聞きもしない・しません。

Nancy doesn't even listen to me.

Formation

(i)Quantifier	も
	五十も	As many as fifty
	百人も	As many as a hundred people
(ii)One Counter	も
	一人も	(not) even one person
	一つも	(not) even one~
(iii)WH-word	も
	何も	(not) anything
	誰も	(not) anybody
(iv)Vます	もしない
	話しもしない	Don't even talk
	食べもしない	Don't even eat

Examples

(a). 春男は一年生の足し算もまともに出来ない。

Haruo cannot do even the first-year addition correctly.

(b). 今日は車が十台も売れた。

As many as ten cars sold today.

(c). そのパーティーには女の子は一人も来なかった。

Not even one girl came to the party.

(d). 誰もそのことを知りません。

Nobody knows about it.

(e). 私は木村さんが呉れた本をまだ見もしていない。

I haven't even seen the book Mr. Kimura gave me yet.

Notes

1. も as an emphatic marker is an extended use of も1. (⇨ も1) The following examples show the transition of meaning from the original idea 'also' to the emphatic use 'even'

a. グレーさんは非常に難しい漢字も読める。
Literally: Mr. Gray can read very difficult kanji, too. (= Mr. Gray can read even very difficult kanji.)
b. ハリスさんは非常にやさしい漢字も読めない。
Literally: Mr. Harris cannot read very easy kanji, either. (= Mr. Harris cannot read even very easy kanji.)

2. 何も and 誰も are used only in negative sentences. Other Interrogative words with も can be used in both affirmative sentences and negative sentences.

いつも always; anytime
どこも everywhere; anywhere
どちらも both; neither of the two ~
どうも somehow

Note the following examples:

a. 大木君はいつも人に親切だ。
Mr. Oki is always kind to people.
b. 小山はいつも約束を守らない。
Koyama never keeps his promise.

3. Verbますも is always followed by a negative form of する 'do' as in Key Sentence (E) and Example (e).

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㊦もう

Adverb

Someone or something is no longer in the same state that he or it was in some time ago.	(not) anymore; (not) any longer; already; yet; now
【Related Expression: まだ】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 私はもう昼ご飯を食べた・食べました。

I have already eaten my lunch.

(ksb). ヒルさんはもう日本語を勉強していない・いません。

Mr. Hill is not studying Japanese any longer.

Examples

(a). A:もう宿題をしましたか。 B:はい、もうしました。

A: Have you done your homework yet (or already)? B: Yes, I 've already done it.

(b). 私はもう酒を飲みません。

I won't drink sake any more.

(c). 春男君はもう大丈夫です。

Haruo is all right now.

Notes

1. もう expresses the idea that someone or something is not in the same state he or it was in some time ago. Thus, もう corresponds to 'already' or 'now' in affirmative declarative sentences, 'yet' or 'already' in affirmative interrogative sentences, and '(not) any more' or '(not) any longer' in negative sentences.

2. The opposite concept of もう is expressed by まだ.

(⇨ まだ)

Basic Page 255

㊦も~も

Structure

The repeated use of a particle meaning 'also' to list elements belonging to the same part of speech.

Both~and~; neither~nor

Key Sentences

(ksa). 田中さんも中山さんもデパートに勤めている・います。

Both Mr. Tanaka and Mr. Nakayama are working for a department store.

(ksb). 京都へはバスでも電車でも行ける・行けます。

We can go to Kyoto either by both bus or by electric train.

(ksc). このうちは広くも狭くもない・ありません。

This house is neither big nor small.

Formation

(i)	N(Prt)もN(Prt)もN(Prt)も
		Both teachers and students
(ii)	AdjいstemもAdjいstemもNegative
		Something is neither big nor small
(iii)	{Adjなstem /N}でも{Adjなstem/N}でもNegative
	便利でも不便でもない	Something is neither convenient nor inconvenient
	先生でも学生でもない	Someone is neether a teacher or a student

Examples

(a). 日本人もアメリカ人もよく働く。

Both Japanese and Americans work hard.

(b). 山川さんは酒も煙草もやりません。

Mr. Yamakawa neither drinks nor smokes.

(c). 弟にも妹にも本を買ってやりました。

I bought books for both my younger brother and sister.

(d). 和枝は美人でも不美人でもない。

Kazue is neither beautiful nor ugly.

(e). この建物は奇麗でも立派でもありません。

This building is neither pretty nor magnificent.

Notes

1. NounもNounも can be used as the subject as in Example (a), as the direct object as in Example (b), as the indirect object as in Example (c) or in any other way in which a regular noun phrase is used.

(⇨ も1)

2. Although NounもNounも can be an indefinitely long noun phrase, normally Nounも is not repeated more than three or four times.

3. The predicate that corresponds to the NounもNounも phrase can be affirmative as in Examples (a) and (c) or negative as in Examples (b), (d) and (e).

Basic Page 257

㊦もの(だ)

Noun

The speaker presents some situation as if it were a tangible object.	Because; how could~!; used to; should like to; should
【Related Expression: から; のだ】

Key Sentences

(ksa). A:どうして行かないの？ B:だって、忙しいもの。

A: How come you don't go there? B: 'Cause I'm busy.

(ksb). よくあんな男とデート出来るものだ・です！

How could you date that kind of guy!

(ksc). 昔はよく映画を見たものだ・です。

I used to see movies a lot.

(ksd). こんないいうちに一度住んでみたいものだ・です。

I'd like to live in such a nice house.

(kse). 朝人に会ったら「おはよう」と言うものだ・です。

You should say "Good morning" when you see people in the morning.

(ksf). 年を取ると昔のことを話したがるものだ・です。

When one gets old, he wants to talk about his/her past.

Formation

(i){Vinformal/Vますたい}	ものだ
	話すものだ	Someone should talk
	話したものだ	Someone used to talk
	話したいものだ	Someone would like to talk
(ii){Adjective い/な} informal	ものだ
	高いもの	'cause something is expensive
	高かったもの	'cause something was expensive
	高かったものだ	Something used to be expensive
	静かだもの	'cause something is quiet
	静かだったもの	'cause something was quiet
	静かだったものだ	Something used to be quiet

Examples

(a). A:どうして食べないの？ B:だって、不味いもの。

A: Why don't you eat it? B: 'Cause it doesn't taste good.

(b). A:どうしてその本、読まないんだい？ B:だって、よく分からないんだもの。

A: Why don't you read that book? B: 'Cause I don't understand it well.

(c). よくそんな馬鹿なことをしたものだ！

How could you do such a foolish thing!

(d). 月日の立つのは早いものだ。

The passing of days and months is so quick!

(e). 昔はこの川にも魚がいたものだ。

There used to be fish in this river, too.

(f). 一度是非一緒にテニスをしたいものですね。

Id like to play tennis with you once.

(g). 人の家に行く時はお土産を持って行くものです。

When you visit someone, you should take a gift with you.

(h). 好きな仕事をしていると病気にならないものだ。

When you are doing work you love, you don't become ill.

Notes

1. Because the speaker presents a situation before もの(だ) as if it were a tangible object, this structure tends to convey differing degrees of emotion. Key Sentences (A) through (F) represent emotive excuse, exclamation, nostalgic reminiscence, desire, indirect command and conviction, respectively. Note, however, that the emotion expressed here is not an instantaneously appearing emotion instigated by a current event but an emotion nurtured in one's mind for a relatively long period time.

2. When もの indicates a reason or an excuse it is used only in very informal speech.

3. もの is contracted into もん in very colloquial speech.

4. The usage of もの in Key Sentence (A) does not take だ/です, unless it appears in a subordinate clause, as in (1).

金がないもんで映画も見られないんだ。
Because I don't have money, I can't see even a movie, you know

【Related Expression】

In Key Sentences (A), (C), (D), (E) and (F) もの can be replaced by の, but with a slightly different meaning. もの sounds more emotive than の, probably due to the semantic difference between もの 'a tangible object' and の 'a nominalizer of a directly perceptible state or action'. Thus, the もの(だ) version is more indirectly emotive, and is not necessarily geared to the current moment, whereas the の(だ) version is more directly emotive and is geared to the current moment. Observe the following:

[1]

今ビールが飲みたいん/*ものです。
I'd like to drink beer now.

[2]

今すぐ会いに行くん/*ものです。
You should go see him at once.

Note that もの in Key Sentence (A) can be replaced by から, but the latter is free from the emotive overtones which are attached to もの.

Basic Page 261

㊦もらう (1)

Verb (Group 1)

The first person or someone the speaker empathises with receives something from someone whose status is not as high as the receiver's.	Get; receive; be given
【Related Expression: くれる1 (あげる1)】

Key Sentences

(ks). (私は)山本さんに本をもらった・もらいました。

I got a book from Mr. Yamamoto.

Examples

(a). 山川さんは橋本さんにウイスキーをもらった。

Mr. Yamakawa got whiskey from Mr. Hashimoto.

(b). (あなたは)モリスさんに何をもらったの？

What did you get from Mr. Morris?

Notes

1. もらう, which is one of a set of giving and receiving verbs, means 'get'. Unlike the English get, however, もらう is used only when the receiver is the first person or someone with whom the speaker empathizes (usually a member of the speaker's in-group). Thus, (1) is unacceptable.

*山本さんは私に酒をもらった。
Mr. Yamamoto got sake from me.

The reason for this is as follows: もらう requires the receiver's point or view when describing an event, and when an event involves the first person, the event is normally described from the first person's point of view. Therefore, if the first person is the giver in もらう sentences, a viewpoint conflict arises, making the sentences ungrammatical. (The situation seen in (1) is usually described using あげる.)

(⇨ あげる1)

2. The humble polite version of もらう is いただく. Example:

私は先生に本をいただいた。
I was given a book by my teacher.

3. The giver can also be marked by the source から 'from' (i.e., から1).

(⇨ に3)

私は山本さんに/から本をもらった。
I got a book from Mr. Yamamoto.

However, if the giver is not human, から is more appropriate than に, as seen in (4).

私は日本政府から/??にお金をもらった。
I received some money from the Japanese government.

This seems to be due to the fact that から1 carries the idea of source, while に conveys the idea of direct contact. That is, unlike the situation in (3), the speaker in (4) does not have direct contact with the giver, the Japanese government, when receiving money. Rather, the Japanese government in (4) is merely the source of the money received.

4. In declarative sentences, if the subject is the speaker, it is often omitted. Similarly, in interrogative sentences, if the subject is the hearer, it is often omitted. (See Key Sentence and Example (b).)

Basic Page 263

㊦もらう (2)

Auxiliary Verb (Group 1)

The first person or someone the speaker empathizes with receives some benefit from an action by someone whose status is not as high as the receiver's.	Receive benefit from an action by someone; have something done by someone; have someone do something.
【Related Expression: くれる2 (あげる2)】

Key Sentences

(ksa). (私は)父にカメラを買ってもらった・もらいました。

My father bought a camera for me.

(ksb). (私は)友達に来てもらった・もらいました。

I had my friend come (for my benefit).

Formation

Vて	もらう
	話してもらう	Have someone talk for my sake
	食べてもらう	Have someone eat for my sake

Examples

(a). 木村さんは大野さんに車を貸してもらった。

Mr. Kimura had Mr. Ono lend him his car.

(b). (君は)ベックさんに何をしてもらいましたか。

What did you have Mr. Beck do for you?/ What did Mr. Beck do for you?

(c). ジョンソンさんは鈴木さんに日本語を教えてもらっている。

Mr. Johnson has Mr. Suzuki teaching him Japanese.

Notes

1. もらう is used as an auxiliary verb with Verbて. The meaning of Verbてもらう is 'receive some benefit from someone's action' or 'have someone do something for someones sake'. Like sentences with もらう as a main verb, when the auxiliary verb もらう is used, the recipient of the favor (i.e., the person in the subject position) must be the first person or someone with whom the speaker empathizes (usually a member of the speaker's in-group). Thus, (1a) is grammatical, but (1b) is not.

a. 私は隣の人にペンを貸してもらった。
Literally: I had the man next to me lend me a pen. (= I borrowed a pen from the man next to me.)
b. *隣の人は私にペンを貸してもらった。
Literally: The man next to me had me lend him a pen. (= The man next to me borrowed a pen from me.)

Note that if the giver of the favor is the first person, sentences with Verbてもらう are ungrammatical even if the recipient of the favor is someone the speaker empathizes with, as in (2).

(⇨ もらう1, Note1)

*弟は私にラジオを貸してもらった。
My younger brother had me lend him a radio.

The humble polite version of もらう as an auxiliary verb is いただく. Example:

私は先生に本を貸していただいた。
Literally: I had my teacher lend me a book. (= I borrowed a book from my teacher.)

4. Unlike sentences with もらう1, the giver cannot be marked by から in sentences with もらう2.

5. In declarative sentences, if the subject is the speaker, it is often omitted. Similarly, in interrogative sentences, if the subject is the hearer, it is often omitted. (Key Sentence (A), (B) and Example (b).)

Basic Page 266

㊦な

Particle

A negative imperative marker used by a male speaker in very informal speech

Don't do ~

Key Sentences

(ks). 煙草を吸うな！

Don't smoke!

Formation

Vinformal nonpast	な
	話すな	Don't talk!
	食べるな	Don't eat!

Examples

(a). 酒をあまり飲むな！

Don't drink too much sake!

(b). そんな所にもう行くな！

Don't go to such a place any more!

(c). あんな男とは結婚するな！

Don't marry that kind of man!

(d). もう帰って来るな！

Don't come home any more!

Notes

1. な is a strong negative imperative and is seldom used except in highly emotional situations. However, the addition of よ after な serves to soften the force of the statement.

酒をあまり飲むなよ。
Don't drink too much sake, OK?

2. A female speaker normally does not use the な imperative. She uses Verb negative ないで, as in 話さないで 'Don't talk.' or 食べないで 'Don't eat.'

(⇨ ください, Note 3)

Basic Page 267

㊦など

Particle

A marker that indicates exemplification.	And so on; and the like; for example; things like~
【Related Expression: なんか】

Key Sentences

(ks). 日本の食べ物の中では寿司や天ぷらなどが好きだ・好きです。

Among Japanese foods I like things like sushi and tempura.

Examples

(a). A:冬休みはどこに行きましょうか。 B:ハワイなどどうですか。

A: Where shall we go during the winter vacation? B: How about Hawaii, for example?

(b). 大学ではフランス語やドイツ語などを勉強した。

In college I studied French and German and the like.

(c). この大学には中国や韓国などから学生が大勢来ます。

A lot of students from China, Korea and so on come to this college.

(d). A:経済学を専攻するつもりですか。 B:いいえ、経済学など専攻するつもりはありません。

A: Are you going to major in economics? B: No, I have no intention of majoring in things like economics.

(e). A:この翻訳をして下さいませんか。 B:こんな難しいもの、私などには出来ません。

A: Could you kindly translate this for me? B: A person like me cannot translate such a difficult thing.

Notes

1. A particle normally follows など, as in:

など {は/が/(を)/(に)/から/で/へ/より/etc.}

Particles other than が, を, and は can precede など, but, depending on the context, this order gives the sentence a more derogatory meaning. Examples:

箸でなど食べられない。
We can't eat with damned chopsticks.

箸などで食べる人もいる。
Some people eat it with chopsticks (and the like).

If the main predicate is negated, as in Examples (d) and (e), など often conveys a sense of humbleness especially when the subject is the speaker or a member of his in-group. In other cases, it is generally derogatory.

【Related Expression】

なか is the informal, colloquial version of など. It is used as など is used except that in a context conveying undesirability or contempt there is more emphasis on the derogatory meaning.

Basic Page 269

㊦ながら

Conjunction

A conjunction which indicates that the action expressed by the preceding verb takes place concurrently or simultaneously with the action expressed in the main clause.	While; over; with
【Related Expression: あいだ】

Key Sentences

(ks). 田口さんはいつも新聞を読みながら朝ご飯を食べる・食べます。

Mr. Taguchi always reads a newspaper while eating his breakfast.

Formation

Vます	ながら
	話しながら	While talking/talk while doing something
	食べながら	While eating/eat while doing something

Examples

(a). 歩きながら本を読むのは危ないですよ。

It is dangerous to read while walking.

(b). 山口さんは笑いながら私の話の聞いていた。

Mr. Yamaguchi was listening to me with a smile./ While smiling, Mr. Yamaguchi was listening to my story.

(c). 私は寝ながら小説を読むのが好きだ。

I like to read novels in bed./ While in bed, I like to read novels.

(d). ものを食べながら話してはいけません。

Don't talk with food in your mouth./ You must not talk while eating things.

(e). 木村君は会社で働きながら学校に行っている。

Mr. Kimura works for a company while going to school.

Notes

1. Verbますながら expresses an action that occurs concurrently or simultaneously with another action. The action expressed by Verbますながら is always secondary to the action expressed in the main clause. Thus, in (1), B is acceptable as a response to A, but C is not.

A: ちょっと話がしたいんですが。
I'd like to have a little talk with you.
B: じや、コーヒーを飲みながら話しましょう。
Then, let's talk over a cup of coffee.
C: *じや、話しながらコーヒーを飲みましょう。
Then, let's drink a cup of coffee while talking.

Note that in English, "while ~ing" is not always the secondary action.

2. Verbますながら cannot be used when the subjects of the two actions are different, as in (2).

*ルームメートがステレオを聞きながら私は勉強した。
I studied while my roommate was listening to the stereo set.

(In this case, 間 is used. (⇨ 間))

Basic Page 271

㊦ないで

Phrase

A negative て form of a verb.	Do not do something. and; without doing ~
【Related Expression: なくて; ずに】

Key Sentences

(ks). ナンシーは昨日朝ご飯を食べないで学校へ行った・行きました。

Nancy went to school yesterday without eating her breakfast.

Formation

Vnegative	ないで
	話さないで	Without talking
	食べないで	Without eating

Examples

(a). 中田さんは大阪に行かないで京都に行った。

Mr. Nakada didn't go to Osaka; he went to Kyoto.

(b). 辞書を使わないで読んで下さい。

Please read it without using a dictionary.

(c). まだ帰らないで下さい。

Please don't go home yet.

(d). 電話しないで欲しい。

I want you not to call me.

(e). 喧しくしないで貰いたい。

I want you to not make noises.

(f). まだあるから買わないでおきました。

Because I still have it, I didn't buy it (in advance).

Notes

1. If a ないで clause expresses something one is expected to do, as in Key Sentence where there is the expectation that Nancy should eat breakfast, the translation is 'without ~ing', but if not, it is 'do not do ~ and ~', as in Example (a).

2. ないで is often used to combine two sentences as in Key Sentence and Examples (a) and (b) but can also be used with 下さい 'please do something', as in Example (c), 欲しい 'want', as in Example (d), もらう 'receive a favor', as in Example (e), and ておく 'do something in advance', as in Example (f).

3. ないで is used only with verbs. It cannot be used with adjectives.

4. In cases where no auxiliaries such as 下さい, 欲しい, もらう and ておく are used, ないで implies that the speaker is emphasizing negation, because somehow the proposition expressed in the ないで clause is contrary to his expectation.

【Related Expressions】

I. ないで can be replaced by ずに, if で of ないで somehow retains the original meaning of 'and' as in Key Sentence, Examples (a), (b) and (f). Thus, the sentences in [1] are all grammatical, but those in [2] are all ungrammatical:

[1]

a. ナンシーはきのう朝ご飯を食べずに学校へ行った。 [Complementiser phrase: Key Sentence]
b. 中田さんは大阪に行かずに京都に行った。 [Complementiser phrase: Example (a)]
c. 辞書を使わずに読んでください。 [Complementiser phrase: Example (b)]
d. まだあるから買わずにおきました。 [Complementiser phrase: Example (f)]

[2]

a. *まだ帰らずにください。 [Complementiser phrase: Example (c)]
b. *電話せずに欲しい。 [Complementiser phrase: Example (d)]

The only difference between ないで and ずに is that of style: ずに is used in formal speech or written Japanese. The formation is exactly the same as ないで, namely, Verb informal negativeずに. However, the ずに form for する verbs is not しずに, but せずに, as in 勉強せずに, 'without studying'.

II. ないで can be replaced by なくて only when the ないで clause indicates some cause for human emotion which is expressed in the main clause. Otherwise, the なくて version is unacceptable, as in [5].

[3]

僕は英語が話せないで/???ずに/なくて恥ずかしかった。
I felt ashamed because I couldn't speak English.

[4]

スージーが遊びに来ないで/???ずに/なくて助かった。
I felt relieved, because Susie didn't come see me.

[5]

a. —郎は帽子を脱がないで/ずに/*なくて部屋に入った。
Ichiro entered the room without taking off his hat.
b. 見ないで/*ずに/*なくてください。
Please don't look at it.
c. 食べないで/ずに/*なくておいた。
I left it uneaten.

It is also noted that the idea of 'X is not Y but Z' is expressed by なくて rather than ないで, as in [6].

[6]

私は学生ではなくて/*ないで先生です。
I am not a student but a teacher.

Basic Page 274

㊦なければならない

Phrase

It won't do if someone does not take some action or if someone or something is not in some state.	Have to; must; need
【Related Expression: ないといけない; なければいけない; なくてはいけない; なくてはならない; ねばならない】
【Antonym Expression: ないでもいい; なくてもいい; てはいけない; てはならない】

Key Sentences

(ksa). A:今日は働かなくてもいいんですか。 B:いいえ、働かなければなりません。

A: Don't you have work today? B: Yes, I have work.

(ksb). バスケットバールの選手は大きくなければならない・なりません。

Basketball players have to be big.

(ksc). 図書館は静かでなければならない・なりません。

Libraries have to be quiet.

(ksd). この仕事は学生でなければならない・なりません。

Speaking of this job, it has to be students.

Formation

(i)Vnegative	なければならない
	話さなければならない	Someone has to talk
	食べなければならない	Someone has to eat
(ii)Adjective い stem	くなければならない
	安くなければならない	Something has to be inexpensive
(iii){Adjective な stem/ Noun}	でなければならない
	静かでなければならない	Something has to be quiet
	先生でなければならない	Someone has to be a teacher

Examples

(a). 私は明日朝五時に起きなければなりません。

I have to get up at five tomorrow morning.

(b). あの部屋はもう少し広くなければなりません。

That room has to be a bit larger.

(c). この仕事をする為には英語が上手でなければならない。

To do this job, your English has to be good.

(d). このゴルフ場を使う為にはメンバーでなければならない。

To use this golf course, you have to be a member.

Notes

1. Verb negative なければならない expresses the idea of obligation. The contracted forms Verb negative なけりゃならない and Verb negative なきゃ(あ)ならない are also used in conversation. Sometimes, ならない is omitted if the context is clear. Example:

もう帰らなければ/帰らなけりゃ/帰らなきゃ(あ)。
I have to go home now.

2. Negative obligation, i.e., "do not have to" cannot be expressed by the negative form of this pattern. It is expressed by なくてもいい 'It is all right if ~ doesn't do something.'

(⇨ てもいい)

【Related Expression】

In addition to なければならない/いけない there are at least four other expressions of obligation. They are as follows:

[1]

a. 話さなくてはならない/いけない。
b. 話さないといけない/*ならない。
c. 話さねばならない/*いけない。

[1c] is the written version なければならない. [1a], [1b] and 話さなければならない/いけない carry essentially the same meaning. なくては is often contracted into なくちゃ, なくちゃあ, なくっちゃ, and なくっちゃあ.

Basic Page 277

㊦なくなる

Phrase

It has reached the point where some state or action does not take place anymore.	Not~ any more
【Related Expression: ようになる; もう~ない】

Key Sentences

(ks). 易しい漢字も書けなくなった・なりました。

I cannot even write easy kanji any more.

Formation

(i)Vinformal negative	なくなる	Where V is often a potential verb
	{話さ /話せ}なくなる	Someone doesn't talk/can't talk anymore
	{食べ /食べられ}なくなる	Someone doesn't/can't eat any more
(ii)Adjective い stem	くなくなる
	高くなくなる	Something isn't expensive any more
(iii){Adjective な stem/ Noun}	{ではじゃ}なくなる
	{静かでは/静かじゃ}なくなる	Something isn't quiet any more
	{先生では/先生じゃ}なくなる	Someone isn't a teacher any more

Examples

(a). 前は酒をよく飲んでいたが、この頃は飲まなくなりました。

I used to drink sake a lot, but now I don't drink any more.

(b). 彼は前よく電話をかけて来ましたが、もうかけて来なくなりました。

He used to call me frequently, but he doesn't call me any more.

(c). 日本語はもう難しくなくなりました。

Japanese isn't difficult for me any more.

(d). この郊外も地下鉄が来て不便ではなくなった。

This suburban area is no longer inconvenient because there is a subway now (literally: the subway has reached here).

(e). やっと大学を出て学生ではなくなりました。

I finally graduated from college and am not a student any longer.

Notes

【Related Expressions】

Compare なくなる, Verb informal negative ようになる and もう~ない in the following sentences:

[1]

日本語が話せなくなった。
I cannot speak Japanese any more.

[2]

日本語が話せないようになった。
I've reached the point where I can't speak Japanese.

[3]

日本語がもう話せない。
I cannot speak Japanese any more.

[1] and [2] focus on both process and result, but [3] focuses only on result. Thus, [1] and [2] can take time expressions indicating the period of change, such as 一年のうちに 'within a year', 急に 'suddenly', とうとう 'finally', but [3] cannot. [1] is different from [2] in that the latter focuses on an indirect, circumstantial cause for the change, whereas the former focuses on a more direct one. Thus, [1] implies that the speaker cannot speak Japanese any more because he has simply forgotten Japanese but [2] implies that he cannot speak Japanese because the situation is such that there are no native speakers around to speak with.

(⇨ ようになる)

Basic Page 279

㊦なくて

Phrase

A て form of the negative ない, which indicates a cause/reason for a state or action.	Do not do something and~; is not~ and~; because~ do not do something
【Related Expression: ないで; ないから; ないので; なくても】

Key Sentences

(ks). 朝七時に起きられなくて会社に遅れた・遅れました。

I couldn't get up at seven and was late for work (at my company).

Formation

(i)Vinformal negative	なくて	Where V is often a potential verb
	{話さ /話せ}なくて	Someone doesn't/can't talk and ~
	{食べ /食べられ}なくて	Someone doesn't/can't eat and~
(ii)Adjective い stem	くなくて
	高くなくて	Something isn't expensive and~
(iii){Adjective な stem/ N}	{ではじゃ}なくて
	{静かでは/静かじゃ}なくて	Something isn't quiet and~
	{先生では/先生じゃ}なくて	Someone isn't a teacher and~

Examples

(a). 先生の説明が分からなくて困りました。

I didn't understand the teacher's explanation and had a difficult time.

(b). 日本では日本語が話せなくて残念でした。

It's regrettable that I couldn't speak Japanese in Japan.

(c). 試験は難しくなくてよかったですね。

The exam wasn't difficult and it was good, wasn't it?

(d). 字が上手じゃなくて恥ずかしいんです。

My handwriting is so poor that I feel ashamed.

(e). 厳しい先生じゃなくてよかった。

He wasn't a strict teacher and it was good.

Notes

【Related Expressions】

I. なくても means '(even) if ~not ~'.

[1]

小川は頭がいいから勉強しなくても東大に入れるよ。
Ogawa is bright, so he can enter Tokyo University even if he doesn't study.

[2]

この難しい漢字は覚えなくてもいいですか？
Is it all right if I don't memorize this difficult kanji?

II. The cause and effect relation indicated by なくて is much weaker and more indirectly presented than that of ないから or ないので. Thus, Key Sentence can be rewritten in four versions, including ないで, as shown in [3].

[3]

朝七時に起きられなくて/ないで/なかったから/なかったので会社に遅れました。

The most direct presentation oi tne cause-effect relation is なかったから, and the presentation becomes more indirect in the following order: なかったので, ないで and なくて. For an excuse for one's lateness the least direct one is of course preferred, because the more indirect, the politer the expression.

(⇨ から; ので; て)

Basic Page 281

㊦なら

Conjunction

A conjunction which indicates that the preceding sentence is the speaker's supposition about the truth of a present or past fact or the actualisation of something in the future.	If it is true that; if it is the case that; if; would; could
【Related Expression: たら (ば, と4)】

Key Sentences

(ks). 松田が来る(の)なら僕は行かない・行きません。

If it is true that Matsuda will come, I won't go.

Formation

(i){V/Adjective い} informal	(の)なら
	{話す /話した} (の)なら	If it is true that someone talks/talked
	{高い /高かった} (の)なら	If it is true that something is/was expensive
(ii){Adjective な stem/ N}	{のだった(の)}なら
	{静かの/静かだった(の)}なら	If it is true that something is/as quiet
	{先生の/先生だった(の)}なら	If it is true that someone is/was a teacher

Examples

(a). シカゴへ行くのならバスで行きなさい。

If you go to Chicago, go by bus.

(b). 杉田が来たのなら僕は帰る。

If Sugita has come, I'll go home.

(c). そんなに高いのなら買えません。

If it is that expensive, I can't buy it.

(d). 山田先生が好きなら手紙を書いたらどうですか。

If you like Mr. Yamada, why don't you write a letter to him?

(e). 高橋先生ならそのことを知っているでしょう。

If it is Professor Takahashi, he probably knows about it.

Notes

1. Basically, Sentenceなら expresses the speaker's supposition concerning the truth of a present or past fact or the actualization of something in the future.

2. なら is the simplified form of ならば, the conditional form of the copula だ. (⇨ ば) In modern Japanese, however, ば is usually omitted.

3. Since なら is the simplified conditional form of the copula, it requires a noun or a noun equivalent. Thus, if the preceding element is not a noun, it is nominalized by の (⇨ の3), although this の is optional in modern Japanese. (The stems of な type adjectives behave like nouns; therefore, they can precede なら without being nominalized. See Formation (ii).)

4. When Sentence1 is nonpast, Sentence1ならSentence2 cannot be used if it is nonsensical to suppose the truth of Sentence. Thus, the sentences in (1) - (3) are all unacceptable. (1) is unacceptable because it never fails to become ten o'clock; (2) is unacceptable because one can never tell whether it is true or not that it will rain tomorrow; (3) is unacceptable because the speaker already knows it is true that he wants to go.

*十時になるならバスが来るはずです。
Literally: The bus is expected to come if it is true that it becomes ten o'clock.

*あした雨が降るなら試合はないでしょう。
If it is true that it will rain tomorrow, there will probably be no game.

*僕が行きたいなら、和子も行きたがっているはずです。
If it is true that I want to go, I expect that Kazuko also wants to go.

As seen above, なら cannot be used (A) if Sentence1 never fails to happen, (B) if one can never tell if it is true or not that Sentence1 will happen, or (C) if the speaker already knows Sentence1 is the fact.

If Sentence1 is counterfactual, Sentence1ならSentence2 can be used. For example, (4) is acceptable because Sentence1 expresses the speaker's counterfactual feeling.

Note that in this case the nominalizer の is preferred.

僕が行きたいのならだれにも言わずに一人で行くよ。
It it were the case that I wanted to go, I would go by myself without telling anybody.

5. Sentence1ならSentence2 cannot be used if the completion or actualization of Sentence1 brings about Sentence2.

*春子のアパートへ行く/行ったなら一郎がいた。
When I went to Haruko's apartment, Ichiro was there.

*テープレコーダーを買う/買ったならテープをくれた。
When I bought a tape-recorder, they gave me a tape.

If Sentence2 does not express a past event or a present habitual events but expresses a present state, the speaker's opinion, volition, judgment, command, request or suggestion, Sentence1なら can be used as in (7).

(7)

a. ニューヨークへ行く(の)ならリンカーン・センターがおもしろいですよ。
If you go to New York, Lincoln Center is interesting.

b. ニューヨークへ行く(の)ならリンカーン・センターへ行きます。
If I go to New York, I will go to Lincoln Center.

c. テープレコーダーを買う/買ったならテープをくれるはずです。
If you buy/have bought a tape-recorder, they should give you a tape.

6. When Sentence2 in Sentence1ならSentence2 is past, Sentence1 must be a past event or state. For example, in (8), Sentence1 represents a past event, and Sentence1なら indicates that the speaker supposes the truth of Sentence1.

雨が降った(の)なら試合はなかったはずです。
If it is true that it rained, there should have been no game.

(8) can also be used in a counterfactual situation where it means 'If it were true that it rained, there should have been no game.' In this case the nominalizer の is preferred.

7. のなら often becomes んなら in conversation.

Basic Page 284

㊦なさい

Auxiliary Verb

A polite imperative used by superiors such as parents or teachers to their inferiors (=people of younger age and lower rank)	Do something
【Related Expression: 下さい】

Key Sentences

(ks). もっと沢山食べなさい。

Eat more.

Formation

Vます	なさい
	話しなさい	Talk
	食べなさい	Eat

Examples

(a). 遊ばないで勉強しなさい。

Don't play. Study.

(b). 早くうちに帰って来なさいよ。

Come home early, OK?

(c). もう遅いから歯を磨いて寝なさい。

It's late now, so brush your teeth and go to bed.

Notes

1. なさい is the imperative form of the verb なさる 'do' (polite honorific).

2. なさい is the polite version of nonpolite imperatives.

a. 読みなさい。 [a polite imperative]
Read it.
b. 読め！ [a nonpolite imperative]
Read it!
a. 食べなさい。 [a polite imperative]
Eat it.
b. 食べろ！ [a nonpolite imperative]
Eat it!

【Related Expression】

In contrast to なさい/ください is used by an inferior towards his superior when he asks a favor of the latter.

[1]

先生、文法を教えてください/*教えなさい。
Professor, please teach me grammar.

Basic Page 286

㊦ね

Particle

A sentence final particle that indicates the speaker's request for confirmation or agreement from the hearer about some shared knowledge.

English tag question (such as isn't it?; is it?; don't you?; do you?); you know

Key Sentences

(ks). 坂本さんは煙草を吸わない・吸いませんね。

Mr. Sakamoto doesn't smoke, does he?/ Mr. Sakamoto, you don't smoke, do you?

Examples

(a). A:今日はいい天気ですね。 B:本当にそうですね。

A: Today is a fine day, isn't it? B: Isn't it!

(b). あなたは学生ですね。

You are a student, aren't you?

(c). パーティーにいらっしゃいますね。

You are going to the party, aren't you?

Notes

1. In this construction the sentence preceding ね can be any informal or formal sentence except nonpolite imperative. Thus,

a. *読めね。
Read it, will you?
b. 読みなさいね。
Read it, will you?
c. 読んでくださいね。
Please read it, will you?

2. ね can be used as a request for either confirmation or agreement from the addressee. When a sentence expresses the speaker's strong impression of something, ね indicates the speakers request for agreement from the hearer, as in Example (a). When a sentence expresses something emotively neutral, ね indicates the speaker's request for confirmation from the hearer, as in Key Sentence and Examples (b) and (c). Here, however, Key Sentence can also be a request for agreement, if the speaker is surprised that Mr. Sakamoto doesn't smoke. These two uses of ね have diflferent intonations: the ね of agreement uses falling intonation and the ね of confirmation uses rising intonation. The ね of agreement becomes ねえ if the speaker is excited about the content of his statement. In other words, Sentenceねえ is an exclamatory sentence, as in (2).

A: 面白い映画でしたねえ！
It was such an interesting film, wasn't it!
B:そうでしたねえ！
Wasn't it!

On the other hand, the ね of confirmation has no exclamatory overtones; it implies something like 'I am assuming X but can you confirm it?' Thus, in Key Sentence the speaker doesn't like people who smoke, and for some reason or other, he wants to confirm that Mr. Sakamoto is not one of those people.

3. ね is sometimes used in a non-sentence-final position to draw the hearer's attention to something or to confirm that the hearer has understood what has been said up to that point. ね is typically used in this manner in telephone conversations.

もしもし、今晩ね、銀座で飲んでから帰るからね、十一時半頃になるよ。
Literally: Hello, tonight, OK? I go home after drinking in Ginza, you understand?, so I'll be home around 11:30.
= Hello, tonight I'll go to Ginza to drink, so I'll be home around 11:30.

4. {て/から}ね is specifically used to give a reason or a cause for the speaker's state of mind or feelings in a very indirect and vague fashion. Examples follow:

a. あの先生はとてもきびしくて/きびしいからね。
(It's because) that teacher is very strict, you know?
b. ゆうべは飲みすぎて/飲みすぎたからね。
(It's because) I drank too much last night, you know?

ね here indicates the speaker's request for agreement from the hearer based on shared knowledge.

5. The ね of confirmation or agreement is used after another sentence-final particle よ of assertion. よね means 'I assert that ~ but don't you agree?/am I right?'. This ね is pronounced with rising intonation

a. 英語が分かるよね。
Literally: I assert that you understand English but am I right? (= You understand English, don't you?)
b. あの先生はいい先生ですよね。
That teacher is a good teacher. Don't you think so?

6. The ね of confirmation or agreement is used after another sentence-final particle, the question marker か. かね means 'I am not sure if ~, am I right?'. The ね of かね is pronounced with falling intonation.

a. 山下君は京大に入れますかね。
Literally: I'm not sure whether Mr. Yamashita can get into Kyoto University, but am I right?
= I'm not sure whether Mr. Yamashita can get into Kyoto University. What do you say?
b. あの先生はいい先生ですかね。
I doubt that he is a good teacher.

Basic Page 289

㊦に (1)

Particle

A particle that indicates a point of time at which something takes place.	At; in; on
【Related Expression: で4】

Key Sentences

(ks). 私は毎朝六時半に起きる・起きます。

I get up at six thirty every morning.

Examples

(a). 私は四月一日に生まれました。

I was born on April 1st.

(b). 今朝は五時半にうちを出ました。

This morning I left home at five thirty.

(c). 来年の夏(に)外国旅行をするつもりです。

I intend to make a trip abroad next summer.

(d). 子供が学校に行っている間に手紙を書いた。

I wrote a letter while my children were away at school.

(e). 田中は大学にいる時(に)今の奥さんと出会った。

Tanaka met his present wife when he was in college.

Notes

1. There are a number of time expressions that cannot take に; the typical ones are 朝 'morning', 明日 'tomorrow', 昨日 'yesterday', 今日 'today', 一昨日 'the day before yesterday', 来年 'next year', 最近 'lately', etc. Generally speaking, if a time expression can be specified uniquely in terms of digits, the adverb can take に; otherwise, it cannot. 月曜日 'Monday' is the 'first' day of the week, so it can take に. So can クリスマス 'Christmas', because it is December 25. But 今日 'today' cannot take に, because 'today' cannot be uniquely specified by date.

2. に is optional with certain time nouns, such as 夏 'summer' (as in Example (c)) and 時 'time' (as in Example (e)). The version with に stresses the point of time more than the version without に does.

3. The time noun 間 also takes に if the event in the main clause does not continue for the entire duration of the event in the 間 clause, as seen in Example (d). If the event in the main clause covers the same duration as the event in the 間 clause, に cannot be used.

(⇨ 間(に))

子供が学校に行っている間手紙を書いていた。
I was writing letters while my children were away at school.

4. When a specific time expression takes ごろ 'about' as in (2), に may drop.

今朝五時半頃(に)起きました。
I got up at about five thirty.

5. に as a particle for a point of time can be used freely with various time expressions, as long as it occurs with a time expression that can be uniquely specified in terms of digits.

(⇨ Note 1)

a. —時五分に
at 1:05
b. 三月四日に
on March 4
c. 月曜日に
on Monday
d. 千九百八十四年に
in 1984
e. 二十一世紀に
in the 21st century

6. に is optional with the names of the four seasons. Thus,

春(に)結婚します。
I'm getting married in the Spring.

Basic Page 291

㊦に (2)

Particle

An indirect object marker.

To; for

Key Sentences

(ks). 私は母に手紙をよく書く・書きます。

I often write letters to my mother.

Examples

(a). 父は僕に時計を呉れた。

My father gave me a watch.

(b). 加藤先生はアメリカ人の学生に日本文学を教えている。

Professor Kato is teaching Japanese literature to American students.

(c). 私は妹にお金を少しやりました。

I gave a little money to my younger sister.

(d). 今井さんに電話しましたがいませんでした。

I called Mr. Imai, but he wasn't there.

(e). 大川先生は学生に色々な辞書を見せた。

Professor Ookawa showed various dictionaries to his students.

Notes

1. In this construction, as seen in Key Sentence, the verb is typically transitive and is related to an action that involves something that can be transferred from one person to another, such as あげる 'give', 話す 'talk', くれる 'give', 見せる 'show', 投げる 'throw, 教える 'teach' and やる 'give'.

2. Any transitive verb used in the Verbてあげる or Verbてあげる construction can take に, if the verb does not take a human direct object. For example, 読む 'read', which does not take a human object, can take に2, if used in the Verbてあげる or Verbてくれる construction, as shown in (1), but ほめる 'praise', which takes a human object, cannot take に, as shown in (2).

小さい時お母さんは私によく本を読んでくれた。
When I was small, my mother often read me books.

先生は私を/*にほめてくださいました。
My teacher praised me.

An intransitive verb can never take に even if it is used in the Verbてあげる or Verbてくれる construction. Thus,

ジョンはメアリーの/*にパーティーに来てあげた。
John came to Mary's party (for her sake).

(⇨ あげる2; くれる2)

Basic Page 292

㊦に (3)

Particle

A particle that indicates an agent or a source in passive, causative, もらう/てまらう and other receiving constructions.	By; from
【Related Expression: から1】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 一男は友達に手紙を読まれた・読まれました。

Kazuo's friend read Kazuo's letter (and Kazuo was unhappy).

(ksb). 秋子は浩にご飯を作らせた・作らせました。

Akiko made Hiroshi fix a meal.

(ksc). 私は父に車を買ってもらった・もらいました。

My father bought me a car.

(ksd). ジェーンは山野先生に生け花を習った・習いました。

Jane took lessons in flower arranging from Mrs. Yamano.

Examples

(a). その子はお母さんに叱られました。

The child was scolded by its mother.

(b). A:そのネクタイは誰にもらったんですか。 B:父にもらいました。

A: From whom did you receive that tie? B: I received it from my father.

(c). 僕はアメリカ人に英語を教えてもらった。

I had an American teach me English.

(d). 兄は私に五時間も運転させました。

My older brother made me drive for as long as five hours.

(e). A:吉田さんが結婚したそうですよ。 B:そうですか。誰に聞きましたか。

A: I heard that Mr. Yoshida got married. B: Is that right? Who told you so?

Notes

1. に3 is typically used in passive, causative, もらう/てもらう constructions and with verbs such as 借りる 'borrow', 聞く 'hear', もらう 'receive', 習う 'learn', 教わる 'learn' which require a noun phrase representing the source of the direct object.

(⇨ られる; させる; もらう1; もらう2)

2. Nouns that take に3 as in Key Sentences (A), (B) and (C) all represent agents of the main verb's action. Thus, Key Sentences (A), (B) and (C) include (1), (2) and (3), respectively as part of their meaning.

友達が手紙を読んだ。
His friend read a letter.

浩がご飯を作った。
Hiroshi fixed a meal.

父が車を買った。
My father bought a car.

3. に3 of source as in Key Sentence (D), Examples (b) and (e) can be replaced by から1, but に3 of agent, as in Key Sentences (A), (B), (C), Examples (a), (c) and (d), cannot.

【Related Expression】

The difference between に3 (of source) and から1 is that the former indicates the speaker's psychological closeness to a human source, whereas the latter doesn't. This difference explains why is ungrammatical if the source is an impersonal institution to which the speaker can hardly feel close, as shown in [1].

[1]

ヒルさんは文部省から/*に奨学金をもらいました。
Mr. Hill has received a scholarship from the Ministry of Education.

Basic Page 295

㊦に (4)

Particle

A particle that indicates the surface of something upon which some action directly takes place.	On; onto
【Related Expression: で1; へ (まで, に7); に6】

Key Sentences

(ks). 子供は紙に絵を書いた・書きました。

A child has drawn a picture on the paper.

Examples

(a). ここにあなたの名前と住所を書いて下さい。

Please write your name and address here.

(b). ヘリコプターが山の上に降りました。

A helicopter landed on the top of the mountain.

(c). オーバーはハンガーに掛けて下さい。

Please hang your overcoat on the hanger.

(d). そんな所に立っていると危ないですよ。

It's dangerous to keep standing in such a place.

Notes

【Related Expressions】

I. に4 should not be confused with で1, a particle that indicates a location in which some action takes place. (⇨ で1) Consider the difference in meaning between [1a] and [1b]:

[1]

a. 道に絵を描いた。
I drew a picture on the street.
b. 道で絵を描いた。
I drew a picture in the street.

II. に4 should not be confused with に6, a particle that indicates the location where someone or something exists. (⇨ に6) Examples:

[2]

a. その寺は京都にある。
That temple is in Kyoto.
b. 私は部屋にいた。
I was in the room.

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㊦に (5)

Particle

A particle which indicates purpose when someone moves from one place to another.	To do something; in order to do something
【Related Expression: 為に】

Key Sentences

(ks). 私はデパートへ贈り物を買いに行った・行きました。

I went to a department store to buy a gift.

Formation

Vます	に
	話しに	To talk
	食べに	To eat

Examples

(a). 学生が質問をしに来た。

A student came to ask questions.

(b). そこへ何をしに行くんですか。

To do what are you going there?/ For what are you going there?

(c). 村井さんは昼ご飯を食べにうちへ帰った。

Mr. Murai went home to eat his lunch.

Notes

1. Verbますに, meaning 'to do something', can be used only with verbs of motion, (i.e., verbs which express a movement from one place to another), such as 行く 'go', 来る 'come', 帰る 'return', 入る 'enter' and 出る 'leave'. Verbs like 歩く 'walk', 走る 'run' and 泳ぐ 'swim' are not considered motion verbs because they express a manner of movement rather than a movement from one place to another. Therefore, the following sentence is ungrammatical.

*私は桜の花を見に公園を歩いた。
I walked through the park to see cherry blossoms.

2. If the verb in Verbますに is a compound verb of the structure Nounする, such as 仕事する 'work', 勉強する 'study' and 質問する 'ask a question', する is sometimes omitted.

a. 大山さんは仕事(し)に行った。
Mr. Oyama went to work.
b. 学生が質問(し)に来た。
A student came to ask questions.

【Related Expression】

Verb informal nonpast為に is also used to express purpose in an action. However, the uses of Verb informal nonpast為に and Verbますに differ in some ways. First, unlike Verbますに, Verb informal nonpast為に can be used with any verb. Examples:

[1]

私は子供の写真を撮るためにカメラを買った。
I bought a camera to take pictures of my child.

[2]

私はアメリカ人の友逹と話すために英語を勉強している。
I'm studying English in order to speak with my American friend.

Second, when Verbますに and Verb informal nonpast為に are used with verbs of motion, Verbますに can be used without a directional phrase, but Verb informal nonpast為に cannot, unless that information is clear from the context. Examples:

[3]

僕は酒を飲みに行った。
I went (somewhere) to drink.

[4]

a. 僕は酒を飲むために友達の家に行った。
I went to his friend's house to drink.
b. *僕は酒を飲むために行った。
I went to drink.

Third, when Verb informal nonpast為に and Verbますに are used with verbs of motion, Verb informal nonpast為に usually expresses a rather important purpose, while Verbますに can be used even to express something insignificant. Examples:

[5]

a. 喫茶店へコーヒーを飲みに行った。
I went to a coffee shop to drink coffee.
b. ??喫茶店へコーヒーを飲むために行った。
I went to a coffee shop to drink coffee.

Basic Page 299

㊦に (6)

Particle

A particle which indicates the location where someone or something exists.	In; at; on
【Related Expression: で1; に4】

Key Sentences

(ksa). ヒルさんは今ジョンソンさんのアパートにいる・います。

Mr. Hill is at Mr. Johnson's apartment now.

(ksb). 私のクラスには中国人の学生がいる・います。

There is a Chinese student in my class.

Examples

(a). その本はこの学校の図書館にあります。

That book is in the school's library.

(b). この学校にはプールがない。

There is no swimming pool at this school.

(c). 加藤さんは大阪に住んでいます。

Mr. Kato lives in Osaka.

(d). 庭に桜の木が立っている。

There is a cherry tree standing in the yard.

(e). この作文には文法の間違いが沢山見られる。

A lot of grammatical mistakes can be seen in this composition.

(f). 花子はみのるの隣に座っている。

Hanako is sitting next to Minoru.

Notes

1. に6 indicates the location where someone or something exists. Verbs such as いる '(animate things) exist', ある '(inanimate things) exist' and 住む 'live' typically occur with the locational に.

(⇨ ある1; いる1)

2. The verb ある often takes the particle に, but when ある is used for an event, に cannot be used. In this case, で is used.

(⇨ ある1; で1)

3. Noun phrases with に often occur as topics, as in Key Sentence (B) and Example (b).

4. If a location phrase which indicates the existence of someone or something modifies a noun phrase, as in 'an apartment in New York', に cannot be used. In this case, の is used.

(⇨ の1)

ニューヨークの/*にアパート
an apartment in New York

【Related Expressions】

I. で1 also indicates location, but not a location where someone/something exists. Thus, in the following sentences で is ungrammatical.

[1]

a. 私のうちに/*ではテレビがない。
There is no TV set in my house.
b.スミスさんは今会議室に/*でいる。
Mr. Smith is in the conference room now.

On the other hand, に is used only to indicate the location where someone/something exists, but not an event; therefore, in the following sentences, に is ungrammatical.

[2]

a. 私はいつも図書館で/*に勉強する。
I always study at the library.
b. このラケットは日本で/*には五万円ぐらいだ。
This racket costs about 50,000 yen in Japan.
c. そのパーティーはトムの家で/*にあった。
The party was held at Tom's.

11. In some sentences, both the locational に and the locational で can be used. For example, in [3] both に and で are appropriate.

[3]

私は京都に/でいい家を見つけた。
I found a good house in Kyoto.

However, the nuances of a sentence with に and that with で are different. Namely, the sentence with に implies that "I found a good house which is in Kyoto", while the one with で means "In Kyoto I found a good house". Therefore, in [4] the に version and the で version mean different things.

[4]

私は東京に/で仕事を見つけた。
I found a job in Tokyo.

Namely, in the sentence with に, the job is in Tokyo and the place the speaker found it mignt not have been Tokyo. On tne other hand, the sentence with で means that the place the speaker found the job was Tokyo and the place where he is going to work is not necessarily Tokyo.

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㊦に (7)

Particle

A particle which indicates a place toward which someone or something moves.	To; toward.
【Related Expression: へ】

Key Sentences

(ks). 私はきのうサンフランシスコに行った・行きました。

I went to San Francisco yesterday.

Examples

(a). ジムは来年アメリカに帰る。

Jim is going back to America next year.

(b). いつか私のうちに来ませんか。

Wouldn't you like to come to my house sometime?

(c). 彼らは角のレストランに入った。

They entered the restaurant around the corner.

Notes

★Semantic Derivations of に

Basic Page 304

㊦に違いない・にちがいない

Phrase

The speaker is convinced that there is no mistake on his part in guessing something.	There is no doubt that~; must be~; no doubt
【Related Expression: だろう; はず; かもしれない】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 下田さんは今日のことを忘れたに違いない・違いありません。

Mr. Shimoda must have forgotten today's plans.

(ksb). あの先生の試験は難しいに違いない・違いません。

That teacher's exams must be hard.

(ksc). ベイリーさんはテニスが上手に違いない・違いありません。

Mr. Bailey must be good at tennis.

(ksd). あの人は日本人に違いない・違いありません。

That person must be Japanese.

Formation

(i){Vinformal/Adjective い} informal	に違いない
	{話す /話した}に違いない	Someone will no doubt talk/someone no doubt talked
	{食べる /食べた}に違いない	Someone will no doubt eat/someone no doubt ate
	{高い /高かった}に違いない	Something is/was no doubt expensive
(ii){Adjective な stem/ Noun}	{Øだった}に違いない
	{静か /静かだった}に違いない	Something is/was no doubt quiet
	{先生 /先生だった}に違いない	Someone is/was no doubt a teacher

Examples

(a). 二人は今頃ハワイで楽しく泳いでいるに違いない。

The two must be enjoying swimming in Hawaii.

(b). 一人で外国へ行くのは大変に違いない。

It must be hard to go to a foreign country alone.

(c). 山口さんは頭がいいに違いない。

Mr. Yamaguchi must be bright.

(d). あれはトンプソンさんに違いない。

That must be Mr. Thompson.

Notes

The sentence-equivalent that precedes に違いない can be nominalized by の in written Japanese, yielding more credibility to the speakers assertion. Examples:

(⇨ の3)

a. 日本の経済はよくなったのに違いない。
The Japanese economy must have really improved.
b. 家を買うのはあまり難しくないのに違いない。
Buying a house is no doubt not so difficult.

【Related Expressions】

I. There are cases where に違いない can sometimes be replaced by はずだ. In such cases, however, the former is always a conjecture and the latter is the speaker's expectation based on objective facts.

(⇨ はず)

II. The degree of probability implied by だろう, かもしれない, and に違いない is as follows:

Probability
◀	Least		Most	▶
◀				▶
◀	かもしれない	\|　だろう　\|	に違いない	▶

Basic Page 307

㊦難い・にくい

Auxiliary Adjective (い)

Something or someone is hard to~.	Hard to~; difficult to~; don't do something easily; not readily; not prone to~
【Antonym Expression: やすい】

Key Sentences

(ks). この本は大変読み難いです。

This book is very hard to read.

Formation

Vます	難い
	話し難い	Someone is hard to talk to
	食べ難い	Something is hard to eat

Examples

(a). このドアは開き難いですね。

This door doesn't open easily, does it?

(b). あの人の名前は覚え難い。

His name is hard to remember.

(c). あの先生は話し難いです。

That teacher is hard to talk to.

(d). この靴は走りにくいです。

These shoes are hard to run in.

Notes

1. Verbます+難い conjugates exactly like an Adjective い.

		Informal	Formal
Affirmative	Nonpast	話しにくい	話しにくいです
Affirmative	Past	話しにくかった	話しにくかったです
Negative	Nonpast	話しにくくない	話しにくくありません
Negative	Past	話しにくくなかった	話しにくくありませんでした

2. In both English and Japanese the subject of the 難い construction can be the subject of an intransitive verb, as in Example (a) where このドア 'this door' is the subject of 開く 'open'. It can also be the direct object of a transitive verb, as in Example (b) where あの人の名前 'his name' is the direct object of 覚える 'remember'. It can be the indirect object of a transitive verb, as in Example (c) where あの先生 'that teacher' is the indirect object of 話す 'talk'. Finally, the subject can be Noun+Particle such as この靴で 'with these shoes' corresponding in English to Preposition+Noun. In this construction, as in Examples (c) and (d), note that the preposition in the English sentence is retained but the corresponding particle in the Japanese sentence is deleted.

3. やすい 'easy to do ~' is an antonym of 難い. The basic formation of the やすい construction is the identical to the 難い construction.

(⇨ 易い)

Basic Page 309

㊦にしては

Particle

A phrase that indicates a generally agreed upon standard (the entire sentence that includes this phrase expresses some deviation from that standard.)	For~; considering that~
【Related Expression: としては】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 高山さんは日本人にしては大きい・大きいです。

Mr. Takayama is big for a Japanese person.

(ksb). ボブは日本語をよく勉強しているにしては下手だ・下手です。

Considering that Bob is studying Japanese hard, he is poor at it.

Formation

(i) Noun	(だった)にしては
	先生(だった)にしては	Considering that someone is/was a teacher
(ii) Vinformal	にしては
	{話す /話した}にしては	Considering that someone talks/talked

Examples

(a). 八月にしては涼しいですね。

For August is it cool, isn't it?

(b). これは日本の車にしては大きいですね。

For a Japanese car this is big, isn't it?

(c). 彼はレスラーだったにしては体が小さい。

Considering that he was a wrestler, he is small.

(d). 青木さんはアメリカに十年いたにしては英語があまり上手じゃない。

Considering that Mr. Aoki spent ten years in America, his English is not very good.

Notes

にしては is the て form of にする 'make it ~, decide on ~' plus は 'if'. The literal meaning is 'if one makes it ~'.

Basic Page 310

㊦にする

Phrase

Someone has decided on something.	Decide on~; make it~
【Related Expression: に決める】

Key Sentences

(ks). 私はこのアパートにする・します。

I've decided on this apartment.

Examples

(a). A:あなたは何にしますか。 B:私はステーキにします。

A: What have you decided on? B: I've decided on steak.

(b). 岡田さんはアメリカの車にしました。

Mr. Okada (has) decided on an American car.

Notes

1. にする is usually preceded by a noun or a noun equivalent. (⇨ ことにする) However, a noun with a particle is also possible. Example:

今度の旅行はニューヨークまでにします。
Next trip, I'll make it as far as New York.

If the tense is nonpast, にする implies that a decision has just been made, as in Key Sentence and Example (a). If the past tense is used, the sentence is ambiguous; it means either that a decision has been made but no action has been taken or that a decision was made and an action was also taken. (Example (b))

【Related Expression】

に決める also means 'decide on' and にする and に決める can be used interchangeably, although に決める is usually used in situations where a decision is considered significant or important. Thus, in situations like Example (a), に決める is not used.

Basic Page 312

㊦の (1)

Particle

A particle which, with a preceding noun phrase, forms a phrase to modify a following noun phrase.	's; of; in; at; for; by; from
【Related Expression: の2】

Key Sentences

(ksa). これは先生の本だ・です。

This is my teacher's book.

(ksb). これは友達からの手紙だ・です。

This is a letter from my friend.

Formation

(i)Noun の Noun	田中さんの家	Mr. Tanaka's house
	アメリカの大学	A university in America
(ii)Noun Particle の Noun	日本での仕事	A job in Japan
	メアリーへのプレゼント	A present for Mary

Examples

(a). 私の本学校の名前今日の新聞

my book the name of the school today's paper

(b). 日本の寺駅の電話

a temple in Japan a telephone at the station

(c). 美術の本日本語の試験

a book on fine arts an exam on Japanese

(d). 桜の花桃の木バスの切符風邪の薬

a cherry blossom a peach tree a bus ticket cold medicine

(e). 日本語の先生音楽の学生

a teacher of Japanese a student of music

(f). ピカソの絵ベートーベンの音楽フォードの車

a picture by Picasso music by Beethoven a car made by Ford

(g). 友達の大木さん医者の森田さんカラーの写真十歳の子供

my friend Mr. Ooki a medical doctor, Dr. Morita a photo in colour a ten year old child

(h). 絹のドレスれんがの家

a silk dress a brick house

(i). 八時からのパーティー先生との話し合い

a party which starts at eight o'clock a discussion with the teacher

Notes

1. Generally, の combines two noun phrases into a larger noun phrase. In AのB, Aの modifies B and indicates a specific member(s) of B among all the members of B. A and B in AのB relate to each other in various ways, and these relationships are determined by context. Some common relationships follow.

B of A; A's B

B in/at A

B on A; B about A

AB; B of A; B for A

AB ; B of A

A's B; B by A; B created by A

A, B; B, who/which is A

2. In AのB, A is sometimes a noun phrase with a particle, as in Key Sentence (B) and Example (i). Note that の cannot be omitted in this case, because it indicates that the preceding noun phrase with a particle modifies the following noun phrase. Without の, the noun phrase with the particle is interpreted as an adverbial phrase which modifies the predicate in the clause. For example, in (1a) 八時から 'from eight o'clock' modifies 行きました 'went', while in (1b) 八時からの modifies パーティー 'party'.

3. The "AのB" construction can be extended as in "AのBのCの..." Examples:

a. 私の先生の本
my teacher's book
b.日本語の先生の田中先生
the Japanese teacher, Professor Tanaka

4. In AのB, B can be omitted if it is apparent from context. Examples:

これは私の(本)です。
This is mine (= my book).

このレストランの(ステーキ)はよくありません。
This restaurant's (steak) is not good.

Basic Page 315

㊦の (2)

Pronoun

A dependent indefinite pronoun.	One
【Related Expression: の1; の3】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 私は大きいのを買った・買いました。

I bought a big one.

(ksb). 私は去年買ったのを使った・使いました。

I used the one I bought last year.

Formation

(i)Adjective い informal nonpast の	高いの	Expensive one
(ii)Adjective な stem なの	丈夫なの	Durable one

Examples

(a). A:どんな車が欲しいですか。 B:小さいのが欲しいです。

A: What kind of car do you want? B: I want a small one.

(b). 友達がワインを飲みたがったので昨日買ったのを出した。

My friend wanted to drink wine, so I served the one I bought yesterday.

Notes

1. The indefinite pronoun の is a dependent pronoun; it cannot be used by itself. It must be modified by an adjective or a relative clause.

2. の is used in place of a noun when what it refers to is clear from the context or the situation. Things referred to by の are not necessarily tangible. Example:

今まで聞いたアイデアの中では田村君が言ったのが一番よさそうだ。
Among the ideas we've heard so far, the one Mr. Tamura told us seems the best.

【Related Expressions】

The indefinite pronoun の (i.e., の2) is different from the particle の (i.e., の1) and the nominalizer の (i.e., の3). First, [1] shows the difference between の1 and の2. Namely, in [1a] トムの is the omitted form of トムのペン. On the other hand, [1b] is not an omitted form; that is, if a noun is inserted after 黒いの in [1b], the sentence becomes ungrammatical as seen in [1c]. In fact, what [1b] means is [1d], if の 'one' refers to a pen.

[1]

a. の1 [particle]
私はトムの(ペン)が欲しい。
I want Tom's pen.
b. の2 [indenmte pronoun]
私は黒いのが欲しい。
I want a black one.
c. *私は黒いのペンが欲しい。
I want a black pen.
d. 私は黒いペンが欲しい。
I want a black pen.

Next, [2] shows the difference between の2 and の3. That is, the meaning of the sentence depends on whether the の in [2] is interpreted as の2 or の3, as shown in the two English translations.

[2]

高田さんが使っていたのを覚えていますか。
(A) [Indefinite pronoun] Do you remember the one Mr. Takada was using?
(B) [Nominalizer] Do you remember that Mr. Takada was using (something)?

Basic Page 318

㊦の (3)

Nominaliser

A nominaliser which is used when the nominalised sentence expresses a directly perceptible event.	That~; to do something; doing something
【Related Expression: こと2; の2】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 日本語を教えるのは難しい・難しいです。

Teaching Japanese is difficult.

(ksb). 私は雪子さんがビールを飲むのを見た・見ました。

I saw Yukiko drink beer.

Formation

(i){V/Adjective い} informal	の
	{話す /話した}の	Someone (will) talk/talked
	{高い /高かった}の	Something is/was expensive
(ii){Adjective な/N}	{なだった}の
	{静かな/静かだった}の	Something is/was quiet
	{先生な/先生だった}の	Someone is/was a teacher

Examples

(a). 日本へ行くのは簡単です。

Going to Japan is easy.

(b). 私は小林さんがピアノを弾いているのを聞いた。

I heard Ms. Kobayashi playing the piano.

(c). クラークさんがフランスへ行くのを知っていますか。

Do you know that Mr. Clark is going to France?

Notes

1. の makes a noun equivalent from a sentence. Key Sentence (A) and Example (a) are examples of sentences where nominalized sentences are used in subject position, and Key Sentence (B) and Examples (b) and (c) are examples where nominalized sentences are used as direct objects. A nominalized sentence can occur in any position where a noun phrase can appear, except in the position of B in "AはBだ". In that situation, the nominalizer こと (i.e., こと2) is used as in (1).

困ったの/ことは彼が来られないこと/*のだ。
The trouble is that he can't come.

2. Nominalized sentences are subordinate clauses, and, therefore, the topic marker は cannot occur, as seen in (2).

(⇨ が1)

僕はひろ子さんが/*はピアノを弾いているのを聞いた。
I heard Hiroko playing the piano.

3. There is another nominalizer, こと. の and こと are sometimes mutually interchangeable. (⇨ こと1) For example, Examples (a) and (c) can be restated as:

日本へ行くことは簡単です。
Going to Japan is easy.

クラークさんがフランスへ行くことを知っていますか。
Do you know that Mr. Clark is going to France?

However, in general, の is used when the preceding clause expresses something rather concrete or perceptible, while こと is used when the preceding clause expresses something rather abstract or imperceptible. In Key Sentence (B), Example (b) and (5), for example, こと cannot be used because the nominalized clauses in these examples all express concrete, perceptible events.

私は自分の体がふるえているの/*ことを感じた。
I felt my body trembling.

Also, there are a number of idiomatic phrases with こと where こと cannot be replaced by の.

(⇨ ことがある; ことが出来る; ことになる; ことにする)

(6) lists verbs and adjectives and their appropriate nominalizers.

(6)

の	こと
見る	see	V	*
見える	be visible	V	*
聞く	hear	V	*
聞こえる	be audible	V	*
感じる	feel	V	*
止める	stop (verb, transitive)	V	*
待つ	wait	V	*
見つける	discover	V	?
防ぐ	protect	V	?
知る	get to know	V	V
忘れる	forget	V	V
(に)気がつく	notice	V	V
思い出す	recall	V	V
覚える	learn	V	V
認める	admit	V	V
避ける	avoid	V	V
止める	quit	V	V
後悔する	regret	V	V
(が)分かる	understand	V	V
(が)好き	like	V	V
(が)嫌い	dislike	V	V
(が)怖い	afraid	V	V
(が)嬉しい	happy	V	V
(が)悲しい	sad	V	V
易しい	easy	V	V
難しい	difficult	V	V
期待する	expect	?	V
信じる	believe	??	V
勧める	advise	??	V
考える	think	*	V
頼む	ask	*	V
命じる	order	*	V
(が)出来る	can do	*	V
(が)ある	there are/were times when	*	V
(に)する	decide	*	V
(に)なる	be decided	*	V
(に)よる	be due to	*	V

Basic Page 322

㊦の (4)

Particle

A sentence-final particle used by a female or a child to indicate an explanation or emotive emphasis.	It is that ~
【Related Expression: のだ】

Key Sentences

(ksa). A:どうして泣いているの？ B:お母さんがいないの。

A: How come you are crying? B: 'Cause mommy's gone.

(ksb). あの人はとても優しいの。

He is so gentle, you know.

(ksc). 母はまだとても元気なの。

My mother is still quite fine.

(ksb). 主人はエンジニアなの。

My husband is an engineer.

Formation

(i){V/Adjective い} informal	の
	{話す /話した}の	Someone talks/talked
	{食べる /食べた}の	Someone eats/ate
	{大きい /大きかった}の	Something is/was big
(ii){Adjective な stem/ Noun}	{なだった}の
	{静かな/ 静かだった}の	Something is/was quiet
	{先生な/ 先生だった}の	Someone is/was a teacher

Examples

(a). A:どうして食べないの？ B:お腹(が)空いて(い)ないの。

A: How come you don't eat it? B: 'Cause I'm not hungry.

(b). A:どうしたの？ B:頭が痛いの。

A: What's the matter with you? B: I have a headache.

(c). うちの子はまだ小学生なの。

My child is still in grade school.

(d). 大学はプリンストンだったの。

My university was Princeton.

Notes

1. The sentence-final の is derived from のだ/のです through deletion of だ/です.

2. This の is used by females or children only in an informal situation. There are times when adult male speakers use の in questions, as in Examples (a) and (b), but they do not use it in declarative sentences, as in Examples (c) and (d).

【Related Expression】

The sentence-final particle の4 is the same in its meaning as の of のだ.

(⇨ のだ)

Basic Page 325

㊦のだ

Phrase

A sentence ending which indicates that the speaker is explaining or asking for an explanation about some information shared with the hearer, or is talking about something emotively, as if it were of common interest to the speaker and the hearer.

The explanation is that~; The reason is that~; The fact is that~; It is that~

Key Sentences

(ksa). 何をしているん・のですか。

What are you doing?

(ksb). 日本語を勉強しているん・のです。

I'm studying Japanese.

Formation

(i){V/Adjective い} informal	のだ
	{話す /話した}のだ	Someone (will) talk/talked
	{高い /高かった}のだ	Something is/was expensive
(ii){Adjective な/N}	{なだった}のだ
	{静かな/静かだった}のだ	Something is/was quiet
	{先生な/先生だった}のだ	Someone is/was a teacher

Examples

(a). A:どうしてお酒を飲まないんですか。 B:私はまだ十七なんです。

A: Why don't you drink sake? B: (The reason is that) I'm still seventeen.

(b). 僕は今日のパーティーに行けません。宿題が沢山あるんです。

I can't go to today's party. I have a lot of homework.

(c). あなたと結婚したいんです。

I want to marry you.

Notes

1. In conversation, のだ/です often becomes んだ/です. In informal speech, male speakers use んだ and female speakers use の. (For the informal forms of のだ in interrogative sentences, see かい and だい.)

2. Basically, Sentenceのだ is used when the speaker is explaining or asking for an explanation about information shared with the hearer. The information is often what the speaker and the hearer have observed or heard. For example, in Key Sentences, A uses のです because he is asking for an explanation about what he sees B doing. B also uses のです because he is explaining his actions. In this situation, (1) is odd.

A: 何をしていますか。
What are you doing?
B: 日本語を勉強しています。
I'm studying Japanese.

If, however, A is only assuming that B is doing something, A can ask the question in (2), and B can answer as B does in (1).

あなたは今何をしていますか。
What are you doing now?

In Example (a), as in Key Sentence, A uses んです because A observes that B isn't drinking sake and wants an explanation for that. And, B also uses んです because he is explaining about what A observed. In Example (b), the speaker uses んです in the second sentence because it is an explanation about the information which has been given in the first sentence.

3. Sentenceのだ is also used when no information is shared by the speaker and the hearer and the speaker is not explaining or asking for an explanation about anything. In this case, the speaker is talking as if some information were shared with the hearer and the effects of this are, for example,

to involve the hearer in the affairs he is talking about (See (3) and (4) below.),

and/or

to impose his idea upon the hearer or, at least, to emphasize his idea emotively. (See (5) below.)

Examples:

今日フットボールがあるんですが一緒に行きませんか。
There is a football game today. Wouldn't you like to go (together) with me?

先生、困っているんです。助けてください。
Teacher, I'm in trouble. Please help me.

日本語の文法は難しいですがおもしろいんですよ。
Japanese grammar is difficult, but it is interesting, you know.

Basic Page 328

㊦ので

Conjunction

A subordinate conjunction which expresses a reason or a cause.	So; since; because
【Related Expression: で3; から3】

Key Sentences

(ks). お酒を沢山飲んだので眠くなった・なりました。

Because I drank a lot of sake, I got sleepy.

Formation

(i){V/Adjective い} informal	ので
	{話す /話した}ので	Because someone (will) talk/talked
	{高い /高かった}ので	Because something is/was expensive
(ii){Adjective な stem/ Noun}	{なだった}ので
	{静かな/静かだった}ので	Because something is/was quiet
	{先生な/先生だった}ので	Because someone is/was a teacher

Examples

(a). 宿題が沢山あるのでパーティー行けません。

Since I have a lot of homework, I can't go to the party.

(b). その本は高かったので買わなかった。

Because that book was expensive, I didn't buy one.

(c). 私の部屋は静かなのでよく勉強出来ます。

My room is quiet, so I can study (there) well.

(d). ジェーンはまだ中学生なので車を運転出来ない。

Because Jane is still a junior high school student, she can't drive a car.

Notes

Etymologically, ので is the て form of のだ. (⇨ のだ) However, in modern Japanese it is used as a conjunction to indicate reason or cause.

【Related Expressions】

I. The conjunction から also expresses reason or cause. However, から and ので differ in the following way. ので is used when the speaker believes that the information he provides in Sentence1ので as cause or reason for Sentence2 is valid and is also evident and acceptable to the hearer. (Examples (a) - (d)) Sentence1からSentence2, however, does not involve that assumption. Therefore, ので cannot be used and から must be used in the following situations :

(A) Sentence1 (i.e., reason/cause clause) expresses the speaker's conjecture about something.

[1]

人がたくさん来るだろうから/*ので食べものをたくさん買っておいた。
Because many people will probably come, I've bought a lot of food.

(B) Sentence2 (i.e., the main clause) is a command, request, suggestion or invitation.

[2] Command

この映画はためになるから/*ので行きなさい。
Because this movie is good for you, go (see it).

[3] Request

あしたのショーはおもしろいから/*のでぜひ見に来てください。
Tomorrow's show is interesting, so please come to see it.

[4] Suggestion

この本はとてもおもしろいから/*のでみんなも読んだほうがいいよ。
This book is very interesting, so you'd better read it, too.

[5] Invitation

いい酒をもらったから/*ので一緒に飲みましょうか。
I got some good sake, so shall we drink it together?

Sentence2 expresses the speaker's volition or personal opinion.

[6] Volition

田中さんが行くから/*ので僕も行こう。
Since Mr. Tanaka is going (there), I'll go, too.

[7] Personal Opinion

僕がよく知っているから/*ので大丈夫です。
I know it well, so there will be no problem.

II. The particle で is also used to express a reason or cause. (⇨ で3; Semantic Derivations of で) で, however, can be used only with nouns, while ので and から are used only with sentences. Compare [8] and [9].

[8]

台風で/*から/*ので家がたくさんたおれた。
Many houses fell down due to the typhoon.

[9]

強い風が吹いたから/ので/*で家がたくさんたおれた。
Literally: Many houses fell down because a strong wind blew.

Basic Page 331

㊦のに (1)

Conjunction

Contrary to everybody's expectation based on the sentence preceding [x], the proposition in the sentence following [x] is the case.	Even though; despite the fact that~; although; but; in spite of the fact that~
【Related Expression: が; けれど(も)】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 毎日漢字を勉強しているのによく覚えられない・覚えられません。

Although I'm studying kanji every day, I cannot memorize them well.

(ksb). このステーキは高いのに美味しくない・美味しくありません。

In spite of the fact that this steak is expensive, it isn't delicious.

(ksc). 清水さんはゴルフが下手なのに大好きだ・大好きです。

Although Mr. Shimizu is not good at golf, he loves it.

(ksd). ホールさんはアメリカ人なのに肉が嫌いだ・嫌いです。

In spite of the fact that Mr. Hall is an American, he doesn't like meat.

Formation

(i){V/Adjective い} informal	のに
	{話す /話した}のに	Although someone talks/talked
	{高い /高かった}のに	Although something is/was expensive
(ii){Adjective な stem/ N}	{なだった}のに
	{静かな/静かだった}のに	Although something is/was quiet
	{先生な/先生だった}のに	Although something is/was a teacher

Examples

(a). 中学と高校で六年間も英語を勉強したのにまだ英語が話せません。

I studied English for as many as six years at junior high and senior high, but I still cannot speak it.

(b). 寒いのにオーバーを着ないで出かけた。

Although it was cold, he went out without wearing an overcoat.

(c). あの人はピアノが上手なのにめったに弾きません。

He is good at piano, but seldom plays.

(d). 父は九十歳なのにまだ働いています。

My father is still working in spite of the fact that he is ninety years old.

Notes

1. のに is the nominalizer の plus the particle に 'to', meaning 'in contrast to the fact that ~'. The のに clause expresses a highly presupposed, speaker-oriented action or state. (⇨ の3) In other words, the speaker of SentenceのにSentence2 is personally involved with the proposition of Sentence1. This personal involvement tends to create some emotive overtone.

2. In colloquial speech, if the content of the main clause is predictable, the clause often drops. In this case, the sentence expresses a feeling of discontent on the part of the speaker.

A: そんなもの要らないよ。
I don't need that kind of stuff.
B: せっかくあげると言うのに。
Literally: Although I'm kindly saying that I'll give it to you. (= I'm saying I'll give it to you, you know.)

【Related Expressions】

I. Because of the speaker-oriented character of the のに clause, certain types of constructions involving the hearer cannot be used in the main clause in this construction. If the main clause is a request, suggestion, question, command or request for permission, only けれど(も)can be used. Examples of the above categories can be seen in [1] through [5] below:

[1]

難しいけれど/*のにしてみてください。
It is difficult, but try it, please.

[2]

あまりおいしくないけれど/*のに食べてみませんか。
It's not so good, but do you want to try it?

[3]

a. 寒いけれど/*のに外に出ますか。
It's cold, but are you going outside?
b. 寒いけれど/のに外に出るんですか。
It's cold, but (literally: is it that you are going outside?) are you going outside?

[4]

つまらないけれど/*のに読みなさい。
It's boring, but read it.

[5]

下手だけれど/*下手なのにしてもいいですか。
I'm not good at it, but can I do it?

[3b] is acceptable, because the scope of the question is not the main verb 出る 'go outside' but the whole sentence nominalized by ん.

II. The main clause cannot be an expression of intention as in [6], because the expression is directed not towards the speaker but towards the hearer.

[6]

分からないけれど/*のによく考えてみるつもりです/考えてみようと思います。
Although I don't understand it, I intend to really think about it/I think I will really think about it.

III. Due to the nominalizer の, the のに clause tends to express something with which the speaker is emotively involved. But けれど(も) is relatively free from the speakers emotive involvement; in short, it is more objective than のに.

(⇨ の3)

IV. のに in Examples (a) through (d) can also be replaced by the disjunctive conjunction が 'but'. For example, Example (d) can be rewritten as [7].

[7]

父は九十歳だが、まだ働いている。
My father is ninety years old, but he is still working.

The disjunctive meaning of が is much weaker than that of のに, and が is free from the restrictions imposed on のに. The style of the のに clause is always informal, but depending on the style of the second sentence, the style of the sentence preceding が can be either informal or formal, as shown below:

Sentence informalがSentence informal/formal	vs	Sentence informalのにSentence informal/formal
Sentence formalがSentence formal

Basic Page 335

㊦のに (2)

Conjunction

In the process or for the purpose of doing something expressed in the の nominalised clause.	In the process of doing~; (in order) to do~; for the purpose of~
【Related Expression: に5; 為(に)】

Key Sentences

(ks). 私は日本語の新聞を読むのに辞書を使う・使います。

I used a dictionary to read Japanese newspapers.

Formation

Vinformal nonpast	のに
	話すのに	In order to talk
	食べるのに	In order to eat

Examples

(a). すき焼きを作るのには何が要りますか。

What do you need to make sukiyaki?

(b). このレポートを書くのに一ヶ月かかりました。

It took me a month to write this paper.

(c). 会社に行くのにバスと電車を使っている。

I am using the bus and the train to get to my company.

Notes

1. In the のに2 construction, only informal, nonpast, volitional verbs can precede のに.

(Complementiser phrase: のに1)

2. When the のに clause is used as the topic (i.e., Sentenceのには), の is often deleted in conversation, as in (1).

すきやきを作るには何が要りますか。
What do you need to make sukiyakii

【Related Expressions】

I. When the main verb is a verb of motion, the のに2 construction contrasts with that of Verbますに Verb(motion). (⇨ に5) Examples:

[1]

映画を見に銀座へ行った。
I went to Ginza to see a movie.

[2]

映画を見るのに銀座へ行った。
I went to Ginza for the purpose of seeing a movie.

[3]

映画を見に/*見るのに行った。
I went to see/*for the purpose of seeing a movie.

If a destination is specified, as in [1] and [2], both constructions can be used. However, the のに version implies that the subject of the sentence made a lot out of the entire process. [2] can imply that the speaker shouldn't have used time and money going to Ginza to see a movie. If a location is not specified, only the Verbますに Verb(motion) construction can be used, as shown in [3].

II. のに2 is similar in its meaning to Verb nonpast為に 'in order to'. The latter purely means 'purpose' but the former retains the meaning of 'in the process of' even when it means 'purpose'. Thus, in a sentence such as [4] below in which the verb in the のに clause is incongruous with the meaning of 'process', のに cannot be used.

[4]

生きるために/*のに食べる。
We eat in order to live.
Complementiser phrase: この町で生きていくために/のに月二十万円は必要だ。
We need 200,000 yen a month in order to keep living in this town.

Basic Page 337

㊦のは～だ

Structure

A structure that indicates new, important information by placing it between [x] and the copula [x] ([x] is an indefinite pronoun ([x]2) that replaces 'time','person', 'thing', 'place' or 'reason'.)	It is ~ that ~; the one who ~ is ~; the place where ~ is ~; the reason why ~ is ~; the time when ~ is ~; what ~ is ~
【Related Expression: の3】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 私が中国に行ったのは三年前だ・です。

It was three years ago that I went to China./ The time when I went to China was three years ago.

(ksb). このクラスで一番頭がいいのは吉田さんだ・です。

The brightest one in this class is Mr. Yoshida.

(ksc). ここで一番奇麗なのは山だ・です。

The most beautiful things here are mountains.

Formation

(i){V/Adjective い} informal	のは～だ
	{話す /話した}のは～だ	It is~ who talks/talked
	{食べる /食べた}のは～だ	It is~ who eats/ate
	{高い /高かった}のは～だ	It is~ that is/was expensive
(ii){Adjective な stem/ Noun}	{なだった}のは～だ
	{静かな/静かだった}のは～だ	It is~ that is/was quiet
	{先生な/先生だった}のは～だ	It is~ who is/was a teacher

Examples

(a). 山田さん、あなたがシカゴに行ったのはいつですか。

Mr. Yamada, when was it that you went to Chicago?

(b). 一昨日遊びに来たのは秋子さんです。

It was Akiko who came to see me the day before yesterday.

(c). モーツアルトが大好きになったのは大学一年の時です。

It was during my freshman year that I become very fond of Mozart.

(d). 父が嫌いなのはテレビだ。

It is television that my father hates.

(e). 日本で美味しいのは果物だ。

What is delicious in Japan is fruit.

Notes

1. The particle used with the noun or noun phrase between のは and だ usually drops if the particle does not have any concrete meaning (as in the cases of が and を), or if the meaning of the entire sentence is somehow predictable. Examples follow.

八時にうちに来たのは森田さん(*が)だ。
It was Mr. Morita who came to my house at eight o'clock.

森田さんが持って来たのはケーキ(*を)だ。
It was cake that Mr. Morita brought here.

森田さんがケーキをくれたのは弟(に)だ。
It was to my brother that Mr. Morita gave cake.

森田さんがうちに来たのは車でだ。
It was by his car that Mr. Morita came to my house.

a. 森田さんが来たのは東京からだ。
It was from Tokyo that Mr. Morita came.
b. 森田さんが出発したのは東京(から)だ。
It was from Tokyo that Mr. Morita departed.

a. 森田さんが飲んだのは田山さんとだ。
It was with Mr. Tayama that Mr. Morita drank.
b. 森田さんが一緒に飲んだのは田山さん(と)だ。
It was with Mr. Tayama that Mr. Morita (literally: together drank.)

In (5b) and (6b) the particles から and と normally drop, because 出発した 'departed' and 一緒に 'together' generally co-occur with から and と, respectively.

3. The element between のは and だ cannot be a manner adverb. The following sentences are all unacceptable.

*花子が歩いたのはゆっくりだ。
*It was slowly that Hanako walked.

*太郎が字を書いたのはきれいにだ。
*It was beautifully that Taro wrote characters.

Unlike English, the copula だ in this construction is normally in the present tense.

きのう買ったのはステレオです/???でした。
It was a stereo set that I bought yesterday.

5. The number of のは~だ sentences which can be produced from one sentence is limited only by the number of elements which can be placed between のは and だ. For example, four such sentences can be derived from (10).

ジョンがジェーンに東京で八月に会った。
John met Jane in August in Tokyo.

a. ジェーンに東京で八月に会ったのはジョンだ。
It was John who met Jane in August in Tokyo.
b. ジョンが東京で八月に会ったのはジェーンだ。
It was Jane whom John met in August in Tokyo.
c. ジョンがジェーンに八月に会ったのは東京(で)だ。
It was in Tokyo that John met Jane in August.
d. ジョンがジェーンに東京で会ったのは八月だ。
It was in August that John met Jane in Tokyo.

6. Normally the の clause takes は, marking the entire clause as presupposed, old, unimportant information, and the element between のは and だ represents a new, important piece of information. But sometimes the の clause takes が, marking the clause as new, important information. In this case the element between のが and だ indicates unimportant information.

私が作っているのがロボットです。
The one I'm making is a robot.

ロボットは私が作っています。
Speaking of robots, I'm making one.

【Related Expression】

の in the present construction should not be confused with the の used as a nominalizer. Sentence [1] is the のは~だ construction and [2], the nominalized sentence.

(⇨ の3)

[1]

本を読むのはたいてい夜だ。
It is usually at night that I read books.

[2]

本を読むのはいいことだ。
It is a good thing to read books.

One way to differentiate between the two constructions is to see if the sentence can be restated by deleting のは and だ and placing the element before のは in an appropriate position. For example, [1] can be restated as [3], but [2] cannot be restated, as seen in [4].

[3]

たいてい夜本を読む。
I read books usually at night.

[4]

a. *いいこと本を読む。
b. *本をいいこと読む。
c. *本を読むいいこと。

Basic Page 343

㊦お

Prefix

A prefix that expresses politeness.

【Related Expression: ご】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 石田先生は英語でお話しになった・なりました。

Professor Ishida talked in English.

(ksb). 私は昨日山崎先生にお会いした・しました。

I met Professor Yamazaki yesterday.

(ksc). 今村さんはゴルフがお好きだ・好きです。

Mr. Imamura likes golf.

(ksd). お飲み物は何が宜しいですか。

As for drinks, what would be good?

Formation

おVます	になる
おVます	する
おAdjective い/な	お忙しい	Someone is busy
	お上手だ	Someone is good at~
おNoun	お金	Money

Examples

(a). 田村先生は今とてもお忙しい。

Professor Tamura is very busy now.

(b). 毎日お暑いですね。

It's hot day after day, isn't it?

(c). 上田先生はテニスがお上手です。

Professor Ueda is good at tennis.

(d). 宮本さんの奥様はとてもお奇麗だ。

Mrs. Miyamoto is very pretty.

(e). 野村さんからお電話がありました。

There was a phone call from Mr. Nomura.

(f). お昼ご飯はもう食べましたか。

Have you had your lunch yet?

Notes

1. The polite prefix お is used with verbs, adjectives and nouns to express the speaker's respect, modesty or politeness. おVerbますになる is an honorific polite expression and おVerbますする is a humble polite expression.

(⇨ お~になる; お~する)

2. おAdjective can be either an honorific polite expression, as in Examples (a), (c) and (d), or a simple polite expression, as in Example (b).

3. おNoun is used in various ways:

先生がお手紙をくださいました。
My teacher wrote me a letter.

みょうにちお電話をさしあげます。
I'll call you tomorrow.

お野菜が高くなりましたねえ。
Vegetables have become expensive, haven't they?

4. お cannot be attached to the following words:

*おおもしろい (interesting)
*おおいしい (delicious)
*お大きい (big)
*おおじさん (uncle)
*おおび (belt, sash)

*おじゃがいも (potato)
[Correct Formation: おじゃが (potato)]
*おほうれん草 (spinach)

*おエレベータ一 (elevator)
*おクリスマス (Christmas)
*おバター (butter)

There are some exceptions to this rule. For example:

おたばこ (tobacco)
おズボン (trousers)
おビール (beer)
おソース (sauce)

These exceptions are words which have been part of the Japanese vocabulary long enough to sound like Japanese-origin words to native speakers.

5. There are a few words which are always used with the polite prefix お or ご.

おなか (stomach)
ご飯 (cooked rice, meal)

【Related Expression】

There is another polite prefix, ご. Basically, ご is used for Chinese-origin words and お for Japanese-origin words. Examples follow:

[1] な type adjectives (い type adjectives are all Japanese-origin words; therefore, they are all preceded by お)

ご親切 (kind)
ごていねい (polite)
ご便利 (convenient)

お静か (quiet)
おにぎやか (lively)
お好き (fond)

[2] Nouns

ご研究 (research)
ご結婚 (marriage)
ご本 (book)

お肉 (meat)
お魚 (fish)
おはし (chopsticks)

There are, however, some Chinese-origin words which require the use of お. These exceptions are words which have become assimilated to the point that native speakers no longer consider them to be "borrowed" words. The words in [3] are examples of such exceptions.

[3]

お上手 (skillful)
お元気 (healthy)

お電話 (telephone)
お料理 (dishes)
お時間 (time)
お勉強 (study)
お菓子 (confectionery)

There are very few examples of ご Japanese-origin words.

[4]

ごゆっくり (slowly)
ごもっとも (reasonable)

Basic Page 347

㊦を (1)

Particle

A particle which marks a direct object.

Key Sentences

(ks). 私は日本語を勉強している・います。

I'm studying Japanese.

Examples

(a). 前田さんは昨日車を買った。

Mr. Maeda bought a car yesterday.

(b). 何を飲みますか。

What will you drink?

Notes

1. を marks the direct object. It is noted, however, that the direct object in English is not always marked by を in Japanese. Compare Japanese and English in the following sentences, for example.

私は英語が分かる。
I understand English.

(⇨ は~が; 分かる)

ジムはベスに電話した。
Jim called Beth.

僕はきのう田中さんに/とあった。
I met Mr. Tanaka yesterday.

2. In some constructions, the direct object marker を can be replaced by the subject marker が.

(4)	ミルクを飲む	→	ミルクを/が飲みたい	(⇨ たい)
drink milk	want to drink milk
(5)	日本語を話す	→	日本語を/が話せる	(⇨ られる2)
speak Japanese	can speak Japanese
(6)	窓を開ける	→	窓を/が開けてある	(⇨ ある2)
open the window	The window has been opened.

3. を cannot occur more than once in a clause, whether it is the direct object marker (i.e., を1) or the space marker (i.e., を2). Thus, in the causative construction, for example, the causee can be marked only by に if another element in the same clause is marked by を. (⇨ させる)

父は私にrを酒を飲ませた。
My father made me drink sake.

友達は私に/*を急な坂をのぼらせた。
My friend made me go up a steep slope.

If the direct object is presented as a topic or a contrastive element, を is replaced by は.

日本語は知りません。
I don't know Japanese.

その本はもう読みました。
I already read that book.

Basic Page 349

㊦を (2)

Particle

A particle which indicates a space in/on/across/through/along which someone or something moves.	In; on; across; through; along; over
【Related Expression: で1】

Key Sentences

(ks). 私は五番街を歩いた・歩きました。

I walked along Fifth Avenue.

Examples

(a). 公園を通って帰りましょう。

Let's go home passing through the park.

(b). 鶴が湖の上を飛んでいます。

Cranes are flying over the lake.

(c). 日本では車は道の左側を走ります。

In Japan they drive on the left side of the street.

(d). そこの交差点を右に曲がって下さい。

Please turn to the right at the intersection there.

Notes

When a sentence involves the verb 登る 'climb', there is an important difference between the use of the particle を and that of に, as seen in (1).

a. ドンは東京タワーを登った。
Don scaled Tokyo Tower.
b. ドンは東京タワーに登った。
Don went up Tokyo Tower.

【Related Expression】

The particle で1 also marks the space in wmch an action takes place. The difference between で1 and を is that で1 can be used with any action verb, while を can be used only with motion verbs such as 歩く 'walk', 走る 'run', 飛ぶ 'fly' and 泳ぐ 'swim'. Thus, を is ungrammatical in [1].

[1]

私は図書館で/*を勉強した。
I studied at the library.

When either で1 or を is possible, as in [2], there is usually a subtle difference between them.

[2]

ジョンは川で/を泳いだ。
John swam in the river.

First, when で1 is used, other locations for an action are also implied, but when を is used, there are no such implications. For example, in [3] John has a choice between a pool and the river. Here, で1 is acceptable, but を is not.

[3]

ジョンはプールが嫌いだからたいてい川で/*を泳ぐ。
John usually swims in the river because he doesn't like pools.

Second, when で1 is used, the sentence often indicates that the purpose of the action is the action itselt, whereas when を is used it seems that there is another purpose behind the action. For example, in [4] John swam in order to escape, and swimming was not the purpose of his action. Therefore, を is acceptable but で1 is not.

[4]

ジョンは川を/*で泳いで逃げた。
John escaped by swimming in the river.

Basic Page 351

㊦を (3)

Particle

A particle that marks the location from which some movement begins.

【Related Expression: から1】

Key Sentences

(ks). 私は朝七時半に家を出る・出ます。

I leave home at 7.30 in the morning.

Examples

(a). 汽車がトンネルを出た。

A train came out of the tunnel.

(b). バスを降りた時友達に会った。

I met a friend when I got off the bus.

(c). 日本を離れて外国で暮らしている。

He left Japan and is living abroad.

Notes

【Related Expression】

The particle を3 in Examples (a), (b), (c) can be replaced by から1 'from'. The basic difference between を3 and から1 is that を3 marks the location from which some movement begins and から1 marks the initial location in movement from one location to another. Thus, when focusing on both the new and old location of something or someone, から should be used instead of を. Consider the following examples.

(⇨ から1)

[1]

a. 私は今朝八時頃家を/*から出た。
This morning I left my house at about eight.
b.きのうはうちから/*を外に出なかった。
Yesterday I didn't go outside.

[1a] focuses on a point of detachment, so を is acceptable but から isn't. [1b], however, focuses on a starting point, so から is acceptable but を isn't.

Basic Page 352

㊦を (4)

Particle

A particle that marks the cause of some human emotion.

Key Sentences

(ksa). 次郎は父の死を悲しんだ・悲しみました。

Jiro was saddened at his father's death.

(ksb). 次郎は父が死んだこと・のを悲しんだ・悲しみした。

Jiro was sad that his father died.

Examples

(a). 私は浩の大学入学を喜んだ。

I was happy about Hiroshi's entering college.

(b). ヨーロッパ人はまだ戦争が起きることを恐れている。

Europeans are afraid that war will break out again.

(c). 信子は京都での一年を懐かしんだ。

Nobuko nostalgically recollected her year in Kyoto.

(d). 林は英語が出来ないことを悩んでいる。

Hayashi is worried that he cannot speak English.

Notes

1. Because the main verbs used in the Key Sentences and the Examples, such as 悲しむ 'sadden', 喜ぶ 'rejoice', 恐れる 'fear', 懐かしむ nostalgically recollect' and 悩む 'worry' are all inwardly-oriented psychological verbs they cannot be considered transitive verbs in Japanese. Therefore, the particle を4 preceding these verbs cannot be the ordinary direct object marker を which normally marks an outwardly-oriented event. Rather it indicates the cause for human emotion expressed by the main verb. Thus, it is sometimes possible to rewrite the sentence in question using ので 'because'. (⇨ ので) For example, Key Sentence (A) and Example (a) can be paraphrased as (1a) and (1b), respectively.

a. 次郞は父が死んだので悲しんだ。
Jiro was sad because his father died.
b. 私は浩が大学に入学したので喜んだ。
I was glad because Hiroshi entered college.

The original versions are examples of written style and are seldom used in conversational Japanese, but the rewritten versions can be used in both spoken and written Japanese.

2. No matter what person (first, second, third) the subject of this construction is, the main emotive verb is normally in the stative ているい/ない form and/or in the past tense. In a generic statement, however, the verb can be in the non-stative, nonpast form as in (2):

誰でも親の死を悲しむ。
Everybody is saddened by their parents' death.

3. If the emotive verb consists of adjective い stem + suffixむ as in 悲しむ 'sadden', 懐かしむ 'nostalgically recollect', 惜しむ 'regret', 楽しむ 'enjoy', it can take the suffix がる 'show signs of ~' as in 悲しがる, 懐かしがる, 惜しがる and 楽しがる. Thus, along with Key Sentence (A) we have a sentence type (3).

(⇨ がる)

次郞は父の死を悲しがった。
Jiro showed signs of being sad about his father's death.

(3) is a more objective expression than Key Sentence (A), because the verb がる 'show signs of ~' has an outwardly-oriented meaning.

Basic Page 354

㊦多い・おおい

Adjective (い)

(of quantity or number) a lot	Many; a lot of; much
【Related Expression: 大勢; たくさん】
【Antonym Expression: 少ない】

Key Sentences

(ks). 日本(に)は大学が多いです。

In Japan universities are many.

Examples

(a). 京都(に)はお寺が多いです。

There are many temples in Kyoto.

(b). ロスさんの作文(に)は間違いが多いです。

There are many mistakes in Mr. Ross's compositions.

(c). 一月(に)は雪が多い。

There is a lot of snow in January.

Notes

1. Unlike the English 'many' the Japanese 多い cannot be used before a noun, except in a relative clause where 多い is the predicate of the clause, not the modifier of the head noun.

*京都には多いお寺があります。
There are many temples in Kyoto.

お寺が多い町は京都です。
The town in which there are many temples is Kyoto.

2. 多い cannot be used in front of a noun, but 多くの can be used that way in written Japanese. Thus,

多くの学生が毎年アジアから日本の大学に来る。
Every year many students come to Japanese universities from Asia.

3. 少ない, an antoymn of 多い, is very similar to 多い in its use. Neither 少ない nor 多い can be used before nouns, except in relative clauses. 少ない differs from 多い in that there is no counterpart of 多く 'the majority' and of 多くの 'many'.

(⇨ 少ない)

a. この町は車が少ないです。
There aren't many cars in this town.
b. 日本語の新聞が読める学生は少ない。
Few students can read Japanese newspapers.

【Related Expressions】

I. 多い and 多くの can be replaced by 大勢いる and 大勢の, respectively, if 多い and 多く no refer to human beings. 大勢 is used only for people.

[1]

この部屋(に)は学生が多い/大勢いる。
There are a lot of students in this room.

[2]

この部屋(に)は多くの/大勢の学生がいる。
There are a lot of students in this room.

大勢 can be used by itself as an adverb, but the adverbial form of 多い cannot be used as an adverb in colloquial speech.

[3]

学生が大勢/*多く来た。
Many students came.

II. 多い and 多くの can be replaced by たくさんある/いる and たくさんの, respectively. たくさん can also be used by itself as an adverb.

[4]

この部屋(に)は机が多い/たくさんある。
There are a lot of tables in this room.

[5]

この部屋(に)は学生が多い/たくさんいる。
There are a lot of students in this room.

[6]

今年はたくさん/*多く/*大勢雪が降った。
It snowed a lot this year.

多く can be used as a noun but 大勢 and たくさん cannot.

[7]

学生の多く/*大勢/*たくさんは男だ。
The majority of the students are male.

Basic Page 357

㊦おく

Auxiliary Verb (Group 1)

Do something in advance for future convenience.	Do something in advance; go ahead and do something; let someone/something remain as he/it is
【Related Expression: ある2】

Key Sentences

(ks). 明日パーティーをするのでビールを買っておいた・おきました。

Since we are having a party tomorrow, I bought some beer for it.

Formation

Vて	おく
	話しておく	Talk in advance
	食べておく	Eat something in advance

Examples

(a). 今日は昼に客が来るので昼ご飯を早目に食べておいた。

Since I'm having a guest at noon today, I had my lunch earlier.

(b). 来年日本へ行くから少し日本語を勉強しておきます。

Since I'm going to Japan next year, I will study a little Japanese ahead of time.

Notes

1. おく as a main verb means 'put' or 'place'. However, when it is used with Verbて, it is an auxiliary verb meaning 'do something in advance and leave the resultant state as it is for future convenience'.

2. With a causative verb, Verbておく can express the idea that someone lets someone or something remain in his/its present state. Examples:

a. 信子は疲れているからしばらく寝させておこう。
Since Nobuko is tired, let's let her sleep for a while.
b.飲みたいと言うのなら好きなだけ飲ませておきなさい。
If he says he wants to drink, let him drink as much as he likes.

However, if the context is not clear, causative Verbておく can be ambiguous. For example, the following sentence can be interpreted two ways.

私はボブにビールを飲ませておいた。
(A) I let (or make) Bob drink beer (for future convenience).
(B) I let Bob drink beer.

3. Verbておく may be contracted into とく or どく in informal conversation.

a. 見ておく→見とく
see 〜 in advance
b. 読んでおく→読んどく
read 〜 in advance

Basic Page 358

㊦お～になる

Phrase

A phrase which expresses the speaker's respect for someone when describing that person's action or state

【Related Expression: お~する; られる1】

Key Sentences

(ks). 田中先生はもうお帰りになった・なりました。

Professor Tanaka already went home.

Formation

おVます	になる
	お話しになる	Someone (will) talk
	お教えになる	Someone (will) teach

Examples

(a). この本をもうお読みになりましたか。

Have you read this book yet?

(b). グッドマン先生は私の名前をお忘れになった。

Professor Goodman has forgotten my name.

Notes

1. In ordinary circumstances, おVerbますになる is used when the speaker describes someone's action or state with respect. However, if a social norm requires the speaker to talk in honorific speech, the honorific form is used, even if the speaker does not respect the person he talks about. Politeness is expressed in this form by two elements: first by the polite prefix お, and second by the verb なる which describes someone's action or state indirectly. This indirectness is a common strategy in polite expressions.

2. There are some verbs whose honorific forms are expressed by special honorific verbs.

3. When a verb has the form "Nounする" like 結婚 'marry' and 電話する 'call' its honorific form is "ご/おNounなさる". なさる is the honorific form of する 'do' and a Group 1 verb. (Note that Verbます is なさい (ます), not なさり (ます).) Except for a handful of exceptions which require お (i.e., 電話する 'call', 勉強する 'study', 料理する 'cook', 選択する 'wash', 掃除する 'clean', 散歩する 'take a walk'), ご precedes Noun. (⇨ お, Related Expression) Examples:

小山先生は四月にご結婚なさいます。
Professor Koyama will get married in April.

森本さんにお電話なさいましたか。
Did you call Mr. Morimoto?

【Related Expression】

られる1 can also be used to describe respectfully someone's action or state, as seen in [1], although the degree of politeness is not as high.

(⇨ られる1, Note 9)

a. 田中先生はもう帰られましたか。
Did Professor Tanaka go home already?
b. この本をもう読まれましたか。
Have you read this book yet?

Basic Page 360

㊦お～する

Phrase

A phrase which humbly expresses the speaker's politeness to someone when describing the speaker's action or state that involves or affects that person.

【Related Expression: お~になる】

Formation

おVます	する
	お話しする	Someone (will) talk
	お教えする	Someone (will) teach

Examples

(a). 私は先生のスーツケースをお持ちした・しました。

I carried my teacher's suitcase.

(b). そのことは私がお話ししましょう。

I will tell you about that matter.

(c). 山村君は先生に本をお借りした。

Mr. Yamamura borrowed a book from his teacher.

Notes

1. おVerbますする is used when the speaker wants to be polite when talking about something he or his in-group member did or will do. For example, when a sales manager is talking to a customer, the manager uses this pattern to describe what his salesmen will do for the customer, as in (1).

サンプルはみょうにちうちのセ一ルスマンがお届けします。
(One of) Our salesmen will bring the sample to you tomorrow.

2. おVerbますする is used only when the speaker's (or his in-group member's) action involves or affects the person the speaker wants to be polite to. Thus, (2) is unacceptable under ordinary circumstances.

*私がお歩きします。
I will walk.

3. There are some verbs whose humble forms are expressed by special verbs. The rule in Note 2 does not apply to these verbs. That is, these special verbs are also used as simple polite expressions and can be used even if the speaker's (or his in-group member's) action does not involve or affect the person the speaker wants to be polite to.

4. When a verb has the form "Nounする", like 紹介する 'introduce' and 電話する 'call', its humble form is "ご/おNounする" or, more politely, "ご/おNounいたす". (いたす is the humble form of the verb する, 'do'.) Except for a handful of exceptions which require お (i.e., 電話する 'call', 勉強する 'study', 料理する 'cook', 洗濯する 'wash', 掃除する 'clean', 散歩する 'take a walk'), ご precedes Noun. (⇨ お, Related Expression) Examples:

上村さんをご紹介します/いたします。
Let me (literally: I will) introduce Mr. Uemura.

あしたお電話します/いたします。
I will call you tomorrow.

【Related Expression】

おVerbますになる is also used to express politeness. However, おVerbますになる and おVerbますする are different in that the former is used when the speaker talks about someone's action or state with respect, while the latter is used when the speaker talks about his own action or state.

Basic Page 362

㊦終わる・おわる

Auxiliary Verb (Group 1)

Finish doing~	Finish; end
【Related Expression: しまう】
【Antonym Expression: ~始める】

Key Sentences

(ks). 源氏物語をやっと読み終わった・終わりました。

I finally finished reading The Tale of Genji.

Formation

Vます	終わる
	話し終わる	Finish talking
	食べ終わる	Finish eating

Examples

(a). やっと論文を書き終わった。

I finally finished writing a paper.

(b). ちょうどご飯を食べ終わったところです。

I've just finished eating my meal.

Notes

1. ~終わる is an auxiliary verb derived from the intransitive verb 終わる meaning 'end; comes to a close'.

2. ~終わる can be replaced by 終える in written Japanese. 終える, however, conjugates as a Group 2 verb.

Basic Page 364

㊦られる (1)

Auxiliary Verb (Group 2)

A state or an action cannot be controlled by someone or something.	Be –ed; get –ed
【Related Expression: お~になる; られる2】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 一郎は花子に騙された・騙されました。

Ichiro was deceived by Hanako.

(ksb). ジェーンはフレッドに夜遅くアパートに来られた・来られました。

Fred came to Jane's apartment late at night (and Jane was unhappy).

(ksc). 私は弟にケーキを食べられた・食べられました。

I got my cake eaten by my younger brother./ My younger brother ate my cake (and I was unhappy).

(ksd). 田中先生は日本へ帰られた・帰られました。

Professor Tanaka went back to Japan (honorific).

Formation

(i)Group 1 verbs	Vnegれる
	話される	Be told
(ii)Group 2 verbs	Vstemられる
	食べられる	Be eaten
(iii)Irregular verbs	来る→来られる	Someone (X) comes to someone (Y) and Y is unhappy
	する→される	Be done

Examples

(a). このビルは二年前に建てられた。

This building was built two years ago.

(b). この本は１９６５年にアメリカで出版された。

This book was published in America in 1965.

(c). 私は二年前妻に死なれた。

My wife died two years ago (and gave me sorrow).

(d). 原田さんは奥さんに高いコートを買われた。

Mr. Harada's wife bought an expensive coat (and he is unhappy).

(e). 林先生は日本の大学のことを話された。

Professor Hayashi talked about Japanese universities (honorific).

Notes

1.There are two types of passive sentences in Japanese. One can be called "direct passive" and the other, "indirect passive". The direct passive is similar to the English passive. (Key Sentence (A), Examples (a) and (b)) That is, for every passive sentence, there is a corresponding active sentence. For example, the active version of Key Senence(A) is (1).

花子は一郎をだました。
Hanako deceived Ichiro.

As seen in Key Sentence (A), in direct passive sentences, the direct object in active sentences is presented as the subject; the subject in active sentences is presented as the agent and marked by に. (⇨ に3) Note that verbs in direct passive sentences are always transitive.

2. When the speaker uses a direct passive sentence, he is making a statement from the viewpoint of the receiver of the action. The agent is frequently omitted when he/it is not important and/or unknown, as in Examples (a) and (b).

3. The indirect object in active sentences can also be the subject in direct passive sentences. Examples:

a. Active sentence
ジョンは先生に質問をした。
John asked his teacher a question.
b. Direct passive sentence
先生はジョンに質問をされた。
The teacher was asked a question by John.

The agent in direct passive sentences can also be marked by other particles, such as によって and から.

a. この絵はピカソによってか描かれた。
This picture was painted by Picasso.
b. 電話はベルによって発明された。
The telephone was invented by Bell.

によって, meaning 'depending on; owing to; by means of', is usually used in written form or formal speech when X in Xによって is a sort of medium through which or whom something is done. When によって is used, Xによって is usually under strong focus. Therefore, the following sentences are unacceptable under normal circumstances.

a. *私は花子によってぶ打たれた。
I was hit by Hanako.
*川本さんはいつも仕事によって追われている。
Mr. Kawamoto's work always keeps him busy.

から 'from' can be used in place of に when the agent is a sort of source, that is, when there is something coming from the agent.

a. 私は学生から日本の大学のことを聞かれた。
I was asked by the students about Japanese universities.
b. 木田さんはみんなから尊敬されている。
Mr. Kida is respected by everybody.

The following sentences are unacceptable because the agents cannot be considered sources.

a. *その時計は泥棒から盗まれました。
That watch was stolen by a thief.
b. *この写真は私の父から撮られたものです。
This picture is the one taken by my father

5. The other type of passive, the indirect passive, does not exist in English. The indirect passive is different from the direct passive and the English passive in the following ways:

(A) The verb can be intransitive. (Key Sentence (B), Example (c))

(B) The direct object can remain as the direct object. (Key Sentence (C), Example (d))

The indirect passive describes an event (X) involving an action by someone or something (Y) which affects another person (Z). As in direct passive sentences, the subject (Z) has no control over the event. Consider the following pair of sentences. (7a), a non-passive sentence, states simply that Taro drank Jiro's beer. (7b), an indirect passive sentence, however, expresses the idea that Jiro was affected by Taro's drinking beer. It implies that Jiro was annoyed in some way by Taro's action, perhaps because the beer Taro drank belonged to Jiro.

a.太郞は次郎のビールを飲んだ。
Taro drank Jiro's beer.
b.次郞は太郎にビールを飲まれた。
Jiro was annoyed by Taro's drinking beer.

6. In the indirect passive construction, Z is usually presented as the topic, marked by は, and Y as the agent, marked by に, as seen in Key Sentence (B) and Key Sentence (C).

7. Since in many situations X negatively affects Z, this construction is also referred to as "adversity passive" or "suffering passive". (Key Sentence (B), Key Sentence (C), Examples (c) and (d)) However, whether X affects Z negatively or positively depends on the situation. Z is not always a "victim", seen in (8) where Z is affected positively.

高山さんは美人に横に座られてニコニコしている。
Literally: Mr. Takayama, having a pretty woman sit beside him, is smiling happily. (= A pretty woman sat beside Mr. Takayama and he is happy.))

8. In indirect passive sentences, the agent must be marked by に. If a passive sentence contains an Noun Phrase に, as well as an agent marked by に, the agent must precede the Noun Phrase に. Example:

a. 私はトムにメアリーに電話された。
Tom called Mary (and I was unhappy).
b. *私はメアリーにトムに電話された。
Tom called Mary (and I was unhappy).

9. Passive verbs are also used as honorific expressions, as in Key Sentence (D) and Example (e), though the degree of politeness is lower than that of the "おVerbますになる" form and special honorific verbs. (⇨ お~になる) Politeness, in this case, is conveyed through the indirectness of the passive construction.

10. Passive verbs are all Group 2 verbs. The basic conjugations are as follows:

(10)

話される	nonpast informal affirmative
話されない	nonpast informal negative
話されて	て form
話された	past informal affirmative

【Related Expression】

The potential form of Group 2 verbs is the same form as the passive form.(⇨ られる2) Potential, passive or honorific structures are identified through syntax and context. Examples:

[1]

先生は刺身が食べられる。
My teacher can eat sashimi.

[2]

られた

[Honorific] My teacher ate sashimi.
[Potential] My teacher could eat sashimi.
[Indirect passive] Someone ate sashimi and my teacher was unhappy.

[3]

先生は学生に刺身を食べられた。
The teacher had (his) sashimi eaten by his students.

As seen in [1], if the direct object is marked by が, 食べられる can only be interpreted as potential; if there is an agent marked by に, however, 食べられる expresses indirect passive, as seen in [3]. If there is no agent marked by に and the direct object is marked by を, 食べられる is ambiguous; it can be either honorific, potential or indirect passive, as seen in [2].

Basic Page 370

㊦られる (2)

Auxiliary Verb (Group 1)

An auxiliary verb which indicates potential.	Be able to do something; can do something; be –able; ~ can be done
【Related Expression: 聞こえる; ことが出来る; 見える】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 私は日本語が読める・読めます。

I can read Japanese.

(ksb). この水は飲めない・飲めません。

This water is not drinkable.

Formation

(i)Group 1 verbs	Vconditionalる
	話せる	Can talk
(ii)Group 2 verbs	Vstemられる
	食べられる	Can eat
(iii)Irregular verbs	来る→来られる	Can come
	する→出来る	Can do

Examples

(a). ブラウンさんは刺身が食べられる。

Mr. Brown can eat sashimi.

(b). 寺田さんはテニスが出来る。

Mr. Terada can play tennis.

(c). この字は読めない。

This letter is not readable.

Notes

1. In potential expressions, if there is an experiencer, that noun phrase is usually marked by は and the object of the action by either が or を.

(⇨ は~が) Compare (1a) and (1b).

(1)

a. Non-potential
私は英語を話します。
I speak English.

b. Potential
私は英語が/を話せます。
I can speak English.

2. In general, the choice between が and を seems to depend on the degree of volition expressed in the action the experiencer takes. That is, if his volition is high, を is preferable. Thus, in the following sentences, が is unnatural.

a. 私はやめようと思えばいつでも今の仕事を/*がやめられる。
I can quit my current job whenever I want to quit (literally: whenever I think I will quit it).
b. 僕はやっとの思いで自分を/*がおさえられた。
I could barely control my emotions (literally: hold myself.)

3. 出来る 'can do', however, always requires the object of an action to be marked by が, as in Example (b). Another example follows:

私はチェスが/*を出来る。
I can play chess.

4. The spatial を (i.e., を2) and the detachment を (i.e., を3) do not change into が in potential expressions.

a. 私はあの公園を/*が夜一人で歩けない。
I can't walk through that park by myself at night.
b. この道を/*がくつをはかずに歩けますか。
Can you walk along this road without shoes on?

今日はうちを/*が出られません。
I can't leave home today.

5. If the experiencer is clear from the context and/or the situation, or if the experiencer is a person in general, he is usually omitted and the object of the action is presented as a topic marked by は, as in Key Sentence (B) and Example (c).

6. Non-volitional verbs like 分かる 'understand, be understandable'; 要る 'need, be necessary'; ある 'exist'; 開く 'open (verb, intransitive)' and 腐る 'rot (verb, intransitive)' do not have potential forms.

7. The potential forms of 見る 'see' (見られる) and 聞く 'hear' (聞ける) are similar to the verbs 見える 'be visible' and 聞こえる 'be audible', respectively, but their uses are different.

(⇨ 聞こえる; 見える)

8. The idea of potentiality can also be expressed by Verb informal nonpastことが出来る.

(⇨ ことが出来る)

9. Potential verbs are all Group 2 verbs. The basic conjugations are as follows:

(6)

話せる	can talk
話せない	cannot talk
話せて	can talk and, (て form)
話せた	could talk

10. There is another potential form for Group 2 verbs.

(7)

Group 2 Verbs:	Verb stem	れる
食べる→	食べれる

This form, however, is used only in informal conversation.

Basic Page 373

㊦らしい

Auxiliary Adjective (い)

An auxiliary adjective which indicates that the preceding sentence is the speaker's conjecture based on what he has heard, read or seen.	Seem; look like; apparently; I heard
【Related Expression: ようだ (だろう; そうだ2)】

Key Sentences

(ks). 松田さんはアメリカへ行くらしいです。

It seems that Mr. Matsuda is going to America.

Formation

(i){V/Adjective い} informal	らしい
	{話す /話した}らしい	It seems that someone (will) talk/talked
	{高い /高かった}らしい	It seems that something is/was expensive
(ii){Adjective な stem/ Noun}	{Øだった}らしい
	{静か /静かだった}らしい	It seems that something is/was quiet
	{先生 /先生だった}らしい	It seemst aht someone is/was a teacher

Examples

(a). 杉本さんはもう帰ったらしいです。

Mr. Sugimoto seems to have gone home already.

(b). あの学校の入学試験は難しいらしい。

That school's entrance exam seems difficult.

(c). この辺りはとても静からしいです。

This neighbourhood seems very quiet.

(d). その話は本当らしい。

That story seems true.

(e). ここは学校らしい。

This place seems to be a school.

Notes

1. らしい is generally used when the speaker makes a conjecture based on some information which he has heard, read or seen. What he has heard is especially important. Unlike そうだ2, which expresses a simple guess based on what the speaker sees, らしい is used when the conjecture is based on more reliable information. (⇨ そうだ2) (For a comprehensive comparison of conjecture expressions, see (⇨ ようだ, Related Expressions.)

2. If there has been relatively little conjecture in the speaker's mind, らしい is almost the same as the hearsay expression そうだ1.

(⇨ そうだ1)

3. Negative conjecture is expressed by a negative predicate and らしい, as in (1).

a. 田口さんはパーティーに行かないらしい。
It seems that Mr. Taguchi won't go to the party.
b. メアリーはビルが好きじゃないらしい。
It seems that Mary doesn't like Bill.

4. Another use of らしい is as follows:

大木さんは男らしい。
Mr. Oki is manly.

Here, らしい means likeness. That is, "XはYらしい" means that X is like the ideal model of Y. (Of course, (2) can also mean "It seems that Oki is a man.")

5. Since らしい is an い type adjective, it can also precede nouns, as in (3).

私は男らしい人が好きだ。
I like a manly man.

The negative version of (2) is (4).

大木さんは男らしくない。
Mr. Oki is not manly.

If 大木さんは男(だ) is negated, the meaning changes.

大木さんは男じやないらしい。
It seems that Oki is not a man.

Basic Page 376

㊦ Relative Clause

Key Sentences

(ksa). ［田中さんが食べた］ステーキは高かった・高かったです。

The steak that Mr. Tanaka ate was expensive.

(ksb). ［ステーキが美味しい］レストランを知らない・知りませんか。

Do you know a restaurant which has good steak (literally: in which steak is good)?

Formation

(i) {V/Adjective い}	informal+Noun
	{話す/話した}人	A person who (will) talks/talked
	{高い/高かった}本	A book which is/was expensive
(ii) Adjective な stem	{な/ だった}Noun
	{静かな/静かだった}家	A house which is/was quiet
(iii) Noun	{のだったであるであった}Noun
	{先生の/先生である}田中さん	Mr. Tanaka (,) who is a teacher
	{先生だった/先生であった}田中さん	Mr. Tanaka (,) who was a teacher

Examples

(a). ［日本語を教えている］先生は小林先生です。

The teacher who is teaching Japanese is Professor Kobayashi.

(b). ［テニスが上手］な人を教えて下さい。

Please tell me of a person who is good at tennis.

(c). ［お父さんが医者］の学生は三人います。

There are three students whose fathers are doctors.

(d). ［私がいた］町は病院がなかった。

There was no hospital in the town where I lived.

(e). ［道子が行く］学校は東京にあります。

The school where Michiko is going is in Tokyo.

(f). ［スティーブがあなたの写真を撮った］カメラはこれですか。

Is this the camera with which Steve took pictures of you?

Notes

1. The procedure for making relative clauses consists of several steps. The following steps show how to relativize ステーキ 'steak' in (1a) in order to obtain the clause modifying ステーキ in (1b).

a.ジョンはステーキを食べました。
John ate a steak.
b.そのステーキは美味しかったです。
the steak was delicious.

Step 1: Delete the common noun phrase in the relative clause. ([] indicates the relative clause boundary.)

[ジョンはØを食べました]ステーキは美味しかったです。

Step 2： Delete the particle which remains.

[ジョンはØ食べました]ステーキは美味しかったです。

Step 3: Change the predicate into an appropriate form. [See Formation.]

[ジョンは食べた]ステーキは美味しかったです。

Step 4： If the topic marker は appears in the clause, replace it with the appropriate particle. (If は follows another particle, delete は.) In this example, ジョン is the subject; therefore, the particle which replaces は is the subject marker が.

(⇨ が; は)

[ジョンが食べた]ステーキは美味しかったです。
The steak that John ate was delicious.

The clause in brackets in (5) is the final form of the relative clause when ステーキ is relativized in (1a).

2. As seen in the procedure for relativization in Note 1,the relative clause construction in Japanese has several characteristics:

(A) Relative clauses precede their corresponding relativized nouns.
(B) There are no relative pronouns like 'which', 'that' and 'who' in English.
(C) Particles which were affixed to relativized nouns are deleted.
(D) The topic marker は does not appear in relative clauses.

3. の can also be used to mark the subject in relative clauses, as in (6).

ジョンが/の食べたステーキ
the steak that John ate

の cannot be used in place of が, however, if the subject of the sentence is followed by a noun, as in (7a). If の is used in this construction, the meaning of the sentence changes, as seen in (7b).

a. トムがフットボールの切符をあげた女の子
the girl to whom Tom gave a football ticket
b. トムのフットボールの切符をあげた女の子
the girl to whom (someone) gave Tom's football ticket

4. Besides the relative clause construction explained above, Japanese has a construction which looks similar to the one above. As seen in Note 1, in a genuine relative clause construction, the relativized noun (the head noun) is part of the original sentence from which the relative clause was derived. In this construction, however, the "head noun" is not part of the original sentence. For example, in (8), におい 'smell' is not part of the sentence 魚がこげる. 'Fish is burning.'

魚がこげるにおい。
the smell of burning fish (literally: the smell which fish burns)

The relationship between the "relative clause" and the "head noun", as seen in (8), is as follows: Suppose that X is the "head noun". Then, X is something which was brought about by the event expressed in the "relative clause", but is not something which was explicitly stated. For example, in (8) the "head noun" におい 'smell' is something brought about when fish burns, but is not an explicit part of the original sentence. Here are some more examples of this type of construction:

誰かが廊下を走る音
the sound of someone's running in the hall

紙をもやした煙
the smoke which came out when someone burned papers (literally: the smoke which someone burned papers)

山に登った疲れ
fatigue which was caused from climbing a mountain (literally: fatigue that (someone) climbed a mountain)

5. The following examples are usually considered to be appositive clause constructions rather than relative clause constructions, because in these examples what is expressed by the preceding clause is the following noun itself.

日本へ行く計画/考え/予定/夢
the plan/ dea/schedule/dream that (I am) going to Japan

日本へ行った事実/経験/話/思い出
the fact/experience/story/memory that (I) went to Japan

6. In relative clauses in Japanese, the restrictive use and the non-restrictive use cannot be distinguished from the structure. It is usually determined from the context and/or the situation. The following examples are ambiguous.

私が日本語を教えてあげたブラウンさんはよく勉強する。
(A) Mr. Brown, to whom I taught Japanese, studies well.
(B) (Among those Browns we know the) Mr. Brown to whom I taught Japanese studies well.

よく働く日本人は嫌われる。
(A) Japanese people, who work hard, are hated.
(B) Japanese people who work hard are hated.

7. The ease or relativization of a noun phrase differs depending on the particle marking the phrase. (16) shows the particle hierarchy. Here, noun phrases marked by the particles in the upper position are easy to relativize and noun phrases marked by the particles in the lower position are hard to relativize.

が→を1→に2→に6→を2→へ→で1→で2(means)→から1(source)→の1→から1(starting point)→と2→で(cause/reason)→より1

Concerning the relativization of noun phrases in simple sentences, noun phrases marked by で2 (cause/reason) and より1 cannot be relativized, but those marked by the rest of the particles in (16) can.

Basic Page 381

㊦さ

Suffix

A suffix that makes a noun out of an adjective by attaching it to the stem of an adjい or much less frequently to the stem of an adjな	-ness; -ly
【Related Expression: み】

Key Sentences

(ks). このうちの広さはちょうどいい・いいです。

This size of this house is just right.

Formation

Adjective (い/な) stem	さ
	高さ	Height
	静かさ	quietness

Examples

(a). 富士山の高さはどのぐらいですか。

What is the approximate height of Mt. Fuji?

(b). 日本語の難しさがよく分かりました。

I'm now well aware of the difficulty of Japanese.

(c). アメリカのよさはパイオニア・スピリットでしょう

One of America's good qualities is perhaps its pioneering spirit.

Notes

1. The suffix さ is a very productive suffix that makes a noun out of an adjective. Some typical examples are given below:

新しさ newness/freshness
大きさ size
速さ speed
強さ strength
長さ length
よさ goodness/merit
白さ whiteness
黒さ blackness

2. Adjective な stem+さ is not commonly used. It is suggested that the learner avoid using it. Some of the most commonly used Adjective な stem+さ are the following:

便利さ convenience
正確さ accuracy
忠実さ loyalty
完璧さ perfection
のどかさ calmness
にぎやかさ liveliness

3. When an adjective can be paired with another adjectival antonym as in 大きい 'big' vs. 小さい 'small', the positive counterparty (i.e., 大きい) tends to acquire a meaning of absolute degree when さ is attached, as in 大きさ 'size'. Examples follow:

Positive	Negative
厚さ	breadth	薄さ	thinness
重さ	weight	軽さ	lightness
難しさ	difficulty	やさしさ	easiness
うれしさ	joy	悲しさ	sadness
深さ	depth	浅さ	shallowness
高さ	height	低さ	lowness
暑さ	heat	寒さ	coldness
濃さ	density	薄さ	thinness
大きさ	size	小ささ	smallness
広さ	size of space	狭さ	smallness of space
強さ	strength	弱さ	weakness

【Related Expression】

さ describes, in an analytical manner, the degree of the state represented by an adjective, but み, another noun-forming suffix, is a more emotive and concrete characterization of some state (based primarily on direct perception). Only a limited number of Adjective い can be used with み. Examples:

赤み reddishness
悲しみ sorrow
暖かみ warmness
深み depth
厚み thickness
弱み weakness
甘み sweetness
苦み bitterness
苦しみ painfulness
強み strength

Consider the following sentences in which さ is unacceptable.

[1]

あの人はおもしろみ/*おもしろさがないね。
He just lacks something that attracts people.

[2]

楽しみ/*楽しさにしています。
I'm looking forward to it.

In both [1] and [2] the さ version is unacceptable because both sentences express something concrete that can be expressed only by み. The fact that nouns with the suffix み indicate something concrete seems to be related to a general tendency of nasal sounds.

Basic Page 384

㊦様・さま

Suffix

A suffix (originally meaning 'appearance') that indicates the speaker's/writer's politeness towards someone.	Mr; Miss; Ms; Mrs
【Related Expression: ちゃん; 君; さん】

Examples

(a). 王様の耳は驢馬の耳だ。

The King's ears are donkey ears.

(b). 神様を信じますか。

Do you believe in God?

(c). 花子ちゃん、今夜はお月様もお星様も奇麗ねえ。

Hanako, aren't the moon and the stars beautiful tonight!

(d). お母様、どこにいらっしゃるの？

Mother, where are you going?

(e). お客様が見えたよ。

Our guests have come.

Notes

1. The reason why 様 'appearance' is used to show one's respect is that 様 allows one to refer indirectly to one's superior. For instance, 山田様 is a more indirect way to refer to a person called 山田 than to call him simply 山田, because 山田様 literary means 'appearance of 山田'. Note, however, that a personal name+様 is not used in conversational Japanese, except in highly polite speech used to clientele by clerks/attendants of hotels, restaurants, travel agencies, department stores, etc.

2. 様 attached to a personified object shows more endearment than respect, as in Example (c).

3. 様 can also be attached to some action or state related to the hearer, as in (1) through (5) below:

ご馳走様(でした)。
It was such a treat.

お世話様になりました。
Thank you for all that you've done for me.

お気の毒様(でした)。
Literally: It was a pitiful matter. (That's too bad.)

お疲れ様(でした)。
You must be very tired.

おかげ様で元気です。
Literally: Thanks to you I'm fine. (I'm fine, thank you.)

4. In written Japanese, especially after the addressee's name in a letter, etc., 様 is used as in:

山田一郎様
Mr. Ichiro Yamada

【Related Expressions】

I. Two related forms, さん and ちゃん are derived from 様 through phonetic modifications. さん is the informal version of 様 and therefore less honorific and more intimate than 様. Except for Examples (a) and (b), in which the highest superiors appear, 様 can be replaced by さん. さん can also be attached to names of occupations and titles as in:

[1] Name of occupation+さん

魚屋さん fishmonger
お菓子屋さん confectioner
酒屋さん wine dealer

[2] Title+さん

校長さん principal
市長さん mayor
課長さん section chief

ちゃん is used with children's names or in child-like language. Normally this suffix is attached only to kinship terms or first names as in:

[3] Kinship terms+ちゃん

お母ちゃん mom
お父ちゃん pop
おじいちゃん grandpa
おばあちゃん grandma
おじちゃん uncle
おばちゃん auntie

[4] First name+ちゃん

花子ちやん Hanako
太郎ちゃん Taro

II. 君 is a similar Sino-Japanese suffix which can be attached to a male equal or male inferior's first name and/or last name. It is sometimes used to refer to a female or a male in an institution such as a school or a company. Etymologically 君 has nothing to do with 様 and its variants.

(⇨ 君)

Basic Page 387

㊦させる

Auxiliary Verb (Group 2)

Cause someone/something to do something or cause something to change its state.

Make someone/something do something; cause someone/something to do something; let someone/something do something; allow someone/something to do something; have someone/something do something; get someone/something to do something.

Key Sentences

(ksa). 鈴木さんは娘を・に大学へ行かせた・行かせました。

Mr. Suzuki made/let his daughter go to college.

(ksb). 父は妹にピアノを習わせた・習わせました。

My father made (or let) my younger sister learn to play the piano.

Formation

(i)Group 1 verbs	Vnegativeせる
	話させる	Cause to talk
(ii)Group 2 verbs	Vstemさせる
	食べさせる	Cause to eat
(iii)Irregular verbs	来る→来させる	Cause to come
	する→させる	Cause to do

Examples

(a). 久子は私を困らせた。

Hisako made me have trouble./ Hisako caused me trouble.

(b). このゲームはジムに勝たせようと思う。

I think I'll let Jim win this game.

(c). 友達は私にチップを払わせた。

My friend made me leave (lit pay) a tip.

(d). アンダーソンさんは子供達に好きなだけアイスクリームを食べさせた。

Mr. Anderson let his children eat as much ice cream as they liked.

(e). 私は冷蔵庫でミルクを凍らせた。

I made milk freeze (I froze milk) in the refrigerator.

(f). それは私にさせてください。

As for that, let me do it.

Notes

1. The idea that someone/something (= the causer) causes or allows someone/something (= the causee) to do something is expressed by the causative construction. In the causative construction, the causer is usually marked by は in main clauses and by が in subordinate clauses. When the main verb is an intransitive verb, the causee is marked by either を or に. The choice between the two particles depends on the following general rule. When に is used, the causee has taken an action intentionally. For example, に is ungrammatical in (1) because the causee didn't intend to go to the party in this situation.

父は私を/*にむりやりパーティ一へ行かせた。
My father forced (literally: forcefully made) me to go to the party.

Also, に is ungrammatical in (2) because the causee is a non-volitional entity and, therefore, has no intent (cannot take a volitional action).

私はハンカチを/*に湿らせた。
Literally: I made my handkerchief get damp. (= I dampened my handkerchief.)

を, on the other hand, can be used regardless of the causee's volition, as seen in (3) and (4). Whether a sentence expresses "permissive" causative or "coercive" causative depends on the context and/or the situation.

a. 私はいやがるむすこを/*にむりやり泳がせた。
Literally: I forced my son, who resisted swimming, to swim.
b. 私はむすこを/に好きなだけ泳がせた。
I let my son swim as much as he wanted.

a. 秋子は勉強はもうしたくないと言ったが私は彼女を/*に大学に行かせることにした。
Akiko said she didn't want to study any more, but I've decided to send her to college, (literally: make her go to college.)
b. 秋子はもっと勉強したいと言ったので, 私は彼女を/に大学に行かせることにした。
Akiko said she wanted to study more, so I've decided to let her go to college.

2. If the main verb is a transitive verb, the causee can be marked only by に as in (5), because を cannot appear more than once in a clause and, in this case, there is already a direct object marked by を in the clause. (⇨ を1)

一郎は雪子に/*をビールを飲ませた。
Ichiro made (or let) Yukiko drink beer.

Thus, when the verb is transitive, に is acceptable even if the causee is not willing to take the action.

—郎は雪子にむりやりビールを飲ませた。
Ichiro forced Yukiko to drink beer.

When the main verb is transitive, it is often difficult to tell from the sentence alone whether or not the causee takes the action willingly. This must be determined by the context and/or the situation in which the sentence is uttered.

3. Whether or not the causee is willing to do something is clear if one of the set of giving and receiving verbs is used. (⇨ あげる2; くれる2; もらう2) Examples:

私は春子をパーティ一に行かせてやった。
I let Haruko go to the party.

父は私に酒を飲ませてくれた。
My father let me drink sake.

The causee's unwillingness to do something, on the other hand, can be more explicitly expressed by the causative-passive construction explained in Note 7.

4. In causative sentences, the causer must be equal to or higher than the causee in terms of status. Thus, the following is unacceptable:

*私は先生に/をパーティーに来させるつもりだ。
I'm going to let (or make) my teacher come to the party.

5. Causative verbs are all Group 2 verbs. The basic conjugations are as follows:

(10)

話させる	nonpast informal affirmative
話させない	nonpast informal negative
話させて	て form
話させた	past informal affirmative

6. There is another set of formation rules for causative verbs, (Causative verbs of tnis version are all Gr.1 verbs.)

(11)

a. Group 1 Verbs:	Verb negative す
	話さす	cause to talk
b. Group 2 Verbs:	Verb stem さす
	食べさす	cause to eat
c. Irregular Verbs:	来る → 来さす	cause to come
	する → さす	cause to do

In general, this set of conjugations seems to express more direct causation. For example, in (12a) 食べさす means 'feed (with a spoon or something)' rather than 'make/let eat', while in (12b) 食べさせる is more general and means 'make/let eat (either by saying something like "Eat your meal" or "You may eat your meal" or actually by feeding with a spoon or sometning)'.

a. 私はジムに果物を食べさすつもりだ。
I intend to feed Jim fruit.
b. 私はジムに果物を食べさせるつもりだ。
I intend to make/let Jim eat fruit.

7. Causative-passive verbs, which are used in causative-passive sentences, are constructed by affixing the passive verb ending られる to causative verb stems. (⇨ られる1) Examples:

話させられる be made to talk
食べさせられる be made to eat

Causative-passive sentences express the idea "be made to do something". Note that they do not express the idea "be allowed to do something". (14) and (15) show causative sentences and their corresponding causative-passive sentences.

a. 父は私を歩いて帰らせた。
My father had me walk home.
b. 私は父に歩いて帰らせられた。
Literally: I was made to walk home by my father. (= My father made me walk home.)

a. 和夫は夏子に酒を飲ませた。
Kazuo made/let Natsuko drink sake.
b. 夏子は和夫に酒を飲ませられた。
Natsuko was made to drink sake by Kazuo.

Basic Page 392

㊦せっかく

Adverb

Some situation which seldom occurs has now occurred and one can either make use of it or, to one's regret, cannot make use of it.	With effort; at great pain; take the trouble to do~
【Related Expression: わざわざ】

Key Sentences

(ksa). せっかく会いに行ったのに友達はいなかった・いませんでした。

I took the trouble to go see my friend, but he wasn't at home.

(ksb). せっかくいい大学に入ったのだからよく勉強するつもりだ・です。

I entered a good college with great effort, so I intend to study hard.

(ksc). せっかくの日曜日なのに働いた・働きました。

Although Sunday is precious (to me), I worked (all day long).

Examples

(a). せっかくアメリカまで行ったのにニューヨークに行けなくて残念だった。

I went as far as America at great expense, but, to my regret, I couldn't make it to New York.

(b). せっかく日本語を三年間も勉強したのだから、是非一度日本へ行ってみたいと思います。

Because I studied Japanese for (as many as) three years, I would love to go to Japan once.

(c). せっかくの旅行が病気で駄目になりました。

My long awaited trip had to be canceled because of my illness.

(d). せっかくですが今日は忙しくて行けません。

I appreciate your most kind offer, but I'm too busy to go there today.

(e). せっかくのチャンスだからデートしたらどうですか。

It's a good chance, so why don't you date her?

(f). せっかくですから遠慮なくいただきます。

Since you took the trouble to bring it to me, I'll take it without hesitation.

Notes

せっかく tends to co-occur with のに 'although' or のだから 'because (it is that) ~', as in Key Sentence (A) and (B), respectively. せっかくの+Noun, however, can be used as a noun phrase, free from any co-occurrence restrictions, as shown in Key Sentence (C) and Examples (c) and (e). せっかくですが (in Example (d)) is used to politely decline someone's kind offer, and せっかくですから (in Example (f)) is used to accept someone's offer.

【Related Expression】

せっかく is related to わざわざ, an adverb whose basic meaning is 'intentionally take the trouble to do something, although it is not necessary to do so'.

[1]

a. せっかく/*わざわざ近くまで来たのだから寄りました。
Because I came all the way to your neighborhood, I dropped by.
b. わざわざ/*せっかく新しい車を買った。
He went to the trouble of buying a new car.
c. わざわざ/*せっかく持って来てくれてありがとう。
Thanks for your trouble in bringing it to me.

Basic Page 395

㊦し

Conjunction

A conjunction to indicate 'and' in an emphatic way.	And what's more; not only~but also~; so
【Related Expression: それから】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 今日はテニスもしたし、映画も見た・見ました。

I not only played tennis but also saw a movie today.

(ksb). ここは夏は暑いし、冬は寒い・寒いです。

Here it's hot in the summer, and what's more, it's cold in the winter.

(ksc). このアパートは奇麗だし、安い・安いです。

This apartment is clean, and what's more, it's inexpensive.

(ksd). 遊びたいんです・だが明日は試験だし遊べない・遊べません。

I would like to play, but there is an exam tomorrow, and I can't fool around.

Formation

(i){V/Adjective い}	し
	{話す /話した}し	Someone talks/talked and what's more
	{食べる /食べた}し	Someone eats/ate and what's more
	{高い /高かった}し	Something is/was expensive and what's more
(ii){Adjective な stem/ N}	{だだった}し
	{静かだ/静かだった}し	Something is/was quiet and what's more
	{先生だ/先生だった}し	Someone is/was a teacher and what's more

Examples

(a). 仕事もあったし、結婚も出来たし、とても嬉しいです。

Not only did I find a job, but I was also able to get married, so I'm very happy.

(b). 今日は天気もいいし、どこへ行きましょうか。

It's a nice day, so shall we go out somewhere?

(c). あの人は美人だし、頭もいい。

She's beautiful and what's more she's bright.

(d). 切符は買ってあるし、是非見に行きましょう。

I've bought a ticket for you, so let's go see it, by all means.

Notes

1. As in Example (a), し can be repeated more than once in a clause, just like Verbて '~ and' can be repeated.

2. There are times when a sentence ends with し in order to weaken the sentence and obscure the cause / reason:

A: あした映画に行きませんか。
Wouldn’t you like to go see a movie tomorrow?
B: えっ，あしたですか。あしたは試験があるし、…
Tomorrow? I have an exam tomorrow, and...

3. When the speaker wishes to be very polite, the clause before し can be in the formal form if the main clause is in the formal form, as in (2).

今日は天気もいいですし，どこかへ行きましょうか。
It’s a nice day, so shall we go out somewhere?

Basic Page 397

㊦しい

Infix

An infix attached to the stem of an adjective い to indicate something that one cannot objectively measure on any scale (e.g. human emotion).

Key Sentences

悲しい楽しいらしい美味しい苦しい頼もしい

Sad enjoyable seem delicious painful dependable

Examples

悔しい厳しい羨ましい寂しい惜しい妬ましい

Regrettable strict envious lonely regrettable enviable

恐ろしい難しい恋しい嬉しい親しい涼しい

Scary difficult dear happy intimate cool

Notes

Adjectives (い) that do not contain -し- are, for the most part, descriptive adjectives that are dependent on the speaker’s objective judgment. In other words, they are adjectives which indicate something that one can objectively measure on some scale. Typical descriptive adjectives are:

赤い (red)	低い (low)	青い (blue)	堅い (hard)
大きい (big)	浅い (shallow)	軽い (light)	白い (white)
小さい (small)	黒い (black)	高い (high)	近い (near)
短い (short)	薄い (thin)	深い (deep)	長い (long)
安い (cheap)	柔らかい (soft)	若い (young)	濃い (thick)

Basic Page 398

㊦しか

Particle

A particle which marks an element X when nothing but X makes the expressed proposition true.	Nothing/nobody/no~ but; only
【Related Expression: ばかり; だけ】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 戸田さんしか煙草を吸わない・吸いません。

No one but Mr. Toda smokes.

(ksb). 私は日本語しか知らない・知りません。

I know nothing but Japanese.

(ksc). それは江口さんにしか話していない・いません。

I haven't told it to anybody but Mr. Eguchi.

(ksd). 私はご飯を一杯しか食べなかった・食べませんでした。

I had only one bowl of rice.

Formation

(i)Noun	しか
先生が(subject)→	先生しか	No one but the teacher
先生を(direct object)→	先生しか	No one but the teacher
(ii)Noun+(Particle)	しか
東京へ・に(direction)→	東京(へ・に)しか	To nowhere but Tokyo
先生に(indirect object, agent)→	先生(に)しか	No one but the teacher
日曜日に(time)→	日曜日(に)しか	Only on Sunday
東京に(location)→	東京(に)しか	Only in Tokyo
(iii)Noun+Particle	しか
東京で(location)→	東京でしか	Only in Tokyo
車で(means)→	車でしか	Only by car
山田さんと(reciprocal)→	山田さんとしか	Only with Mr. Yamada
東京から(starting point/source)→	東京からしか	Only from Tokyo
五時まで(ending point)→	五時までしか	Only till five o'clock
(iv)Quantifier	しか
	少ししか	Only a little

Examples

(a). パーティーには学生しか来なかった。

Only students came to the party.

(b). 田村さんはサラダしか食べなかった。

Mr. Tamura ate only salad.

(c). 私は日曜日(に)しか来られません。

I can come only on Sunday.

(d). この本はこの図書館(に)しかありません。

Only this library has this book.

(e). そこは車でしか行けない。

You can go there only by car./ The only way you can go there is by car.

(f). 私は山田さんとしか話をしない。

I talk only with Mr. Yamada.

(g). この学校は学生が百人しかない。

This school has only a hundred students.

Notes

しか always occurs with negative predicates.

【Related Expressions】

I. だけ expresses a similar idea, (⇨ だけ) However, だけ and しか differ in the following ways:

(A)

Xしか emphasizes the negative proposition of "non-X", while Xだけ merely describes the situation in neutral fashion.

(B)

しか occurs only with negative predicates; だけ, however, can occur with affirmative predicates. Compare the following sentences:

[1]

a. ボブだけ来た。
Only Bob came.
b. ボブしか来なかった。
Nobody but Bob came.

[2]

a. ボブだけ来なかった。
Only Bob didn’t come.
b. *ボブしか来た/来なくなかった。
Everybody but Bob came.

(C)

The verb かかる 'it takes (time)' can be used with しか, but not with だけ, as in [3].

[3]

a. 私の家から学校までは車で五分しかかからない。
From my house to school it takes only five minutes by car.
b. *私の家から学校までは車で五分だけかかる。
From my house to school it takes only five minutes by car.

II. ばかり is also used to mean 'only' in some situations. (⇨ ばかり) Unlike Xしか or Xだけ, however, Xばかり emphasizes the positive proposition of X, often with the implication that someone/something does something to X/with X/... a lot or more than one expects. For example, [4a] emphasizes the fact that Jim drank beer, whereas [4b] emphasizes the fact that Jim didn't drink anything but beer. [4c] is a neutral statement.

[4]

a. ジムはビールばかリ飲んだ。
Jim drank only beer (and a lot).
b. ジムはビールしか飲まなかった。
Jim drank nothing but beer.
c. ジムはビールだけ飲んだ。
Jim drank only beer.

Note that Xばかり cannot be used if X is a single entity. Thus, [5a] is grammatical, but [5b] is not.

[5]

a. 女の子ばかり来た。
Only girls came (and it was more than I expected).
b. *メアリーばかり来た。
Only Mary came.

Note also that ばかり cannot be used with negative predicates, as in [6].

[6]

子供達だけ/*ばかり来なかった。
Only the children didn’t come.

Basic Page 403

㊦しまう

Auxiliary Verb (Group 1)

An auxiliary verb which indicates the completion of an action.	Have dome something; finish doing something; finish something up
【Related Expression:~終わる】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 池田君は三日でその本を読んでしまった・しまいました。

Mr. Ikeda finished reading the book in three days.

(ksb). 私はルームメートのミルクを飲んでしまった・しまいました。

I (mistakenly) drank my roommate's milk.

Formation

Vて	しまう
	話してしまう	Have talked
	食べてしまう	Have eaten

Examples

(a). もう宿題をしてしまいましたか。

Have you done your homework yet?

(b). 私は今日中にそのレポートを書いてしまおうと思っている。

I think that I will finish (writing) the report today.

(c). 早くご飯を食べてしまいなさい。

Finish (eating) your meal quickly.

(d). シチューを作り過ぎてしまいました。

I made too much stew (to my regret).

Notes

1. しまう is used as an auxiliary verb with Verbて and expresses the idea of completion in terms of an action. Verbてしまう often appears with such adverbs as すっかり 'completely', 全部 'all' and 完全に 'completely. Examples:

a. マイクはすっかり日本語を忘れてしまった。
Mike has completely forgotten Japanese.
b. 私は持っていた切手を全部友達にあげてしまった。
I gave all the stamps I had kept to my friends.

2. Verbてしまった also expresses the idea that someone did something which he shouldn't have done or something happened which shouldn't have happened. (Key Sentence (B) and Example (d)) Thus, it often implies the agents regret about what he has done or the speaker's regret or criticism about someone's action or about something that has happened. Examples:

a. ジェリーはペギーのケーキを食べてしまった。
Jerry (mistakenly) ate Peggy's cake.
b. 私はちがうバスに乗ってしまった。
I got on the wrong bus.
c. 雨が降ってしまったのでピクニックに行けなかった。
It rained, so we couldn't go on a picnic.

3. Whether a sentence with Verbてしまった is interpreted as simple completion or regret (or criticism) depends on the context and/or the situation. For example, (3) can be interpreted in two ways.

僕はお酒を飲んでしまった。
(A) I finished drinking sake.
(B) I drank sake (which I shouldn't have done).

4. てしまう and でしまう are contractea as ちゃう and じゃう respectively, in informal speech, as in (4), and can be used by male and by female speakers.

a. 話してしまう → 話しちやう have talked
b. 飲んでしまう → 飲んじやう have drunk

ちまう and じまう, another set of contracted forms of てしまう, are used only by male speakers.

【Related Expressions】

I. Verb past can also express the completion of an action. However, it is different from Verbてしまう in that Verb past expresses the completion of an action in the past, while Verbてしまう expresses completion regardless of the time of completion. Thus, [1a] is grammatical, but [1b] is not.

[1]

a. ここにおいておくとジムが食べてしまうよ。
If you leave it here, Jim will eat it (up).
b. ここにおいておくとジムが食べたよ。
If you leave it here, Jim will eat it up.

II. Verbます終わる also means 'finish doing ~'. The difference between Verbます終わる and Verbてしまう is that Verbます終わる indicates the action of finishing something, while Verbてしまう indicates the completed state of the action. Thus, these two expressions correspond to the English expressions 'finish doing' and 'have done' in that Verbます終わる can occur with a specific time phrase, but Verbてしまう cannot.

[2]

a. きのうその本を読み終わった/*読んでしまった。
I finished reading/*have read the book yesterday.
b. けさ九時にやっとレポートを書き終わった/*書いてしまった。
I finally finished writing/*have finally written the report at nine o'clock this morning.

It is also noted that しまう can be used with noncontrollable verbs like 忘れる 'forget', while 終わる cannot, as in [3].

[3]

a. 僕はナンシーの住所を忘れてしまった。
I've forgotten Nancy's address.
b. *僕はナンシーの住所を忘れ終わった。
*I finished forgetting Nancy's address.

Basic Page 406

㊦知る・しる

Verb (Group 1)

Someone gets information from some outside source.	Get to know
【Related Expression: 分かる】

Key Sentences

(ks). A:日本のことを知っていますか。 B:はい、知っています。/いいえ、知りません。

A: Do you know about Japan? B: Yes, I do./ No, I don't.

Examples

(a). 木下さんを知っていますか。

Do you know Mr. Kinoshita?

(b). 山口さんの電話番号を知っていますか。

Do you know Mr. Yamaguchi's telephone number?

(c). A:中国語を知っていますか。 B:いいえ、知りません。

A: Do you know Chinese? B: No, I don't.

(d). 私は上田さんがアメリカへ行ったことを知らなかった。

I didn't know that Mr. Ueda had gone to America.

Notes

1. 知る, a nonstative verb, takes the Verbている form when it means the stative 'know'.

(⇨ いる2)

2. When answering in the negative to the question Xを知っていますか 'Do you know X?', the negative nonstative form 知らない/知りません is used instead of 知っていない/知っていません, as in Key Sentence (B) and Example (c).

Basic Page 407

㊦そうだ (1)

Auxiliary

An auxiliary which indicates that the information expressed by the preceding sentence is what the speaker heard.	I hear that~; I heard that~; people say that~
【Related Expression: そうだ2; ようだ (だろう; らしい)】

Key Sentences

(ks). 山川さんがフランス語を勉強しているそうです。

I heard that Mr. Yamakawa is studying French.

Formation

(i){V/Adjective い} informal	そうだ
	{話す /話した}そうだ	I heard that someone (will) talk/talked
	{高い /高かった}そうだ	I heard that something is/was expensive
(ii){Adjective な stem/ Noun}	{だだった}そうだ
	{静かだ/静かだった}そうだ	I heard that something is/was quiet
	{先生だ/先生だった}そうだ	I heard that someone is/was a teacher

Examples

(a). 清水さんはお酒を飲まないそうです。

I heard that Mr. Shimizu doesn't drink any alcohol.

(b). 日本の肉はとても高いそうだ。

I heard that meat in Japan is very expensive.

(c). 利子さんは英語がとても上手だそうです。

I heard that Toshiko speaks very good English.

(d). キングさんは英語の先生だそうだ。

I heard that Mr. King is a teacher of English.

Notes

1. Sentence informal そうだ expresses hearsay. That is, this pattern is used when the speaker conveys information obtained from some information source without altering it.

(⇨ らしい)

2. Information sources are expressed by Noun によると 'according to Noun'.

新聞によるとフロリダに雪が降ったそうだ。
According to the newspaper，it snowed in Florida.

【Related Expression】

The hearsay そうだ (i.e., そうだ1) and the conjecture そうだ (i.e., そうだ2) are two different expressions. Compare their different connection patterns in [1].

(⇨ そうだ2)

[1]

そうだ1 (hearsay)	そうだ2 (conjecture)
Verb before そうだ	Verb informal そうだ Example: 話す/話したそうだ	Verb ますそうだ Example: 話しそうだ
Adjective い before そうだ	Adjective い informal そうだ Example: 高い/高かったそうだ	Adjective い stem そうだ Example: 高そうだ
Adjective な before そうだ	Adjective な stem {だ/だった} そうだ Example: 静かだ/諍かだったそうだ	Adj な stem そうだ Example: 静かそうだ
Noun before そうだ	Nound {だ/だった} そうだ Example: 先生だ/先生だったそうだ	X
そうだbefore Noun	X	[Verb ます/Adjective い stem/Adjective な stem} そうな Noun Example: 高そうな本

Basic Page 410

㊦そうだ (2)

Auxiliary Adjective (な)

An auxiliary adjective which indicates that what is expressed by the preceding sentence is the speaker's conjecture concerning an event in the future or the present state of someone or something, based on what the speaker sees or feels.	Look; look like; appear; seem; feel like
【Related Expression: そうだ1; ようだ (だろう; らしい)】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 雨が降りそうだ・そうです。

It looks like it will rain.

(ksb). あの車が高そうだ・そうです。

That car looks expensive.

Formation

(i)Vます	そうだ
	話しそうだ	It looks like someone will talk
	食べそうだ	It looks like someone will eat
(ii)Adjective い/な stem	そうだ
	高そうだ	Something looks expensive
	静かそうだ	Something looks quiet

Examples

(a). この家は強い風が吹いたら倒れそうだ。

It looks like this house will fall down when a strong wind blows.

(b). あのステーキは美味しそうだった。

That steak looked delicious.

(c). この辺りは静かそうだ。

This neighbourhood looks quiet.

Notes

1. {Verbます/Adjective(い/な)stem} そうだ expresses the speaker's conjecture based on visual information. Thus, this expression can be used only when the speaker directly observes something. The speaker's conjecture concerns an event which might take place in the future or the present state of someone or something. In other words, そうだ2 cannot be used to express the speaker's conjecture concerning a past event or state.

(⇨ らしい; ようだ)

2. The adjective いい 'good' and the negative ない 'not exist/not' change to よそ and なさ, respectively, before そうだ2. Examples:

このアパートはよさそうだ。
This apartment looks good.

問題はなさそうだ。
It looks like there is no problem.

村山さんの家はあまり新しくなさそうだ。
Mr. Murayama's house doesn't look so new.

3. Noun or Noun+Copula cannot precede そうだ2, as seen in (4a) and (4b), but Noun+Copula negative nonpast can, as seen in (4c).

a. *加藤さんは学生∅そうだ。
Mr. Kato looks like a student.
b. *加藤さんは学生だそうだ。
Mr. Kato looks like a student.
c. 加藤さんは学生じゃなさそうだ。
Mr. Kato doesn't look like a student.

To express the intended meaning in (4a) and (4b) らしい is used.

(⇨ らしい)

(4b) is grammatical if そうだ means hearsay.

(⇨ そうだ1)

4. In this construction, the negative forms of verbs usually don't precede そうだ2. Instead, Verbますそうに/もない is used. Examples:

クリスは車を売りそうに/もない。
Chris doesn't seem to sell his car.

この問題は学生には出来そうに/もない。
It doesn't seem that the students can solve this problem.

5. そうだ is also used to express the speaker's conjecture concerning his own non-volitional future actions based on what he feels.

僕はこのケーキを残しそうだ。
I’m afraid I can’t eat all this cake.

私はとても疲れていてたおれそうだ。
I’m so tired that I feel weak (literally: like I’m falling down).

6. そうだ is a な type adjective; the prenominal form is そうな. Examples:

高そうな車
A car which looks expensive (= an expensive-looking car).

雨が降りそうな空
Literally: the sky which looks like it will bring rain.

Basic Page 413

㊦それで

Conjunction

A conjunction to indicate that what is stated in the preceding sentence is the reason or cause for what is stated in the following sentence.	And; because of that; that is why; therefore; so
【Related Expression: だから; ので】

Key Sentences

(ks). 昨日は風邪を引きました。それで学校を休んだんです。

I had a cold yesterday. That's why I took a day off from school.

Examples

(a). ちょっと大阪で用事がありました。それで昨日いなかったんです。

I had some business in Osaka. That's why I wasn't here yesterday.

(b). A:昨日はちょっと大阪で用事がありました。 B:ああ、それでいらっしゃらなかったんですね。

A: Yesterday I had to run an errand in Osaka. B: Oh, that why you weren't here.

(c). A:昨日小川君とピンポンの試合をしたんだ。 B:それで、先週新しいラケットを買ったんですね。

A: Yesterday I played ping pong with Mr. Ogawa. B: That's why he bought a new paddle last week.

Notes

【Related Expressions】

I. "Sentence1. それでSentence2" can be rephrased using ので if それで means cause or reason. Note, however, that the ので construction is a single sentence.

(⇨ ので)

Example:

[1]

ちょっと大阪で用事があったのできのういなかったんです。
Because I had an errand to run in Osaka, I wasn’t here yesterday.

The difference is that それで combines two sentences much more loosely than ので.

II. "Sentence1. それでSentence2" can be rephrased using だ/ですから, if Sentence1 indicates a reason or a cause for Sentence2.

[2]

ちょっと大阪で用事がありました。だからきのういなかったんです。
I had an errand to run in Osaka. So, I wasn’t here yesterday.

The difference between それで and だから is similar to the difference between ので and から. (⇨ から3; ので) Observe the following sentence.

[3]

今日は忙しいです。だから/*それであした来てください。
I’m busy today. So, please come tomorrow.

Basic Page 414

㊦それでは

Conjunction

If that is the case	If so; then; well then
【Related Expression: それなら】

Key Sentences

(ks). A:このオレンジは甘くないです。 B:それではこれはどう(ですか)。

A: This orange is not sweet. B: How about this one, then?

Examples

(a). A:僕は魚も肉も嫌いです。 B:それでは何を食べるんですか。

A: I hate both fish and meat. B: Then, what do you eat.

(b). A:今日の午後テニスをしませんか。 B:今日の午後はちょっと都合が悪いんですが。 A:それでは明日の午後はどうですか。

A: Wouldn't you like to play tennis this afternoon? B: This afternoon is not convenient for me, but... A: Then, how about tomorrow afternoon?

(c). それでは二十分ぐらい休みましょう。

Well then, let's take a break for about twenty minutes.

(d). それではまた来週の金曜日に来ます。

Well then, I'll come again next Friday.

Notes

1. それでは is contracted into それじゃ or それじゃあ in informal speech.

2. それでは is often shortened to では, which is further contracted to じゃあ or じゃ.

3. それでは is used in sentence-initial position, and それ 'that' refers to that which is stated in the preceding sentence, as in Examples (a) and (b), or to the preceding context, as in Examples (c) and (d). In Examples (c) and (d) the speaker uses それでは based on some nonverbal shared knowledge. The shared knowledge for (c) and (d) could be 'the fact of having worked long enough' and 'the fact of having finished today's discussion and an agreement for meeting every Friday', respectively.

Basic Page 416

㊦それから

Conjunction

A conjunction that indicates (1) temporally contiguous actions or states, or (2) a cumulative listing of objects, actions or states.	After that; and then; in addition to that
【Related Expression: から2; し; そして】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 昨日は二時間ぐらい友達と飲んでそれからうちに帰った・帰りました。

Yesterday I drank with my friend for about two hours and then went home.

(ksb). 昨日は二時間ぐらい友達と飲んだ。それから本屋に寄ってうちに帰った。

Yesterday I drank with my friend for about two hours. Then I dropped by a bookstore and went home.

Formation

(i){Vて/Vます}	それから
	{話して /話し},それから	Someone talks, and then~
	{食べて /食べ},それから	Someone eats, and then~
(ii)Adjective い stem	く(て)、それから
	高く(て)、それから	Something is not only expensive but~
(iii)Adjective な stem	で、それから
	静かで、それから	Something is not only quiet but~
(iv)Noun1 (と) Noun 2 (と)	それからNoun3
	英語(と)日本語(と)、それから中国語	English, Japanese and Chinese

Examples

(a). 十時まで宿題をしました。それから映画に行きました。

I did my homework until 10 o'clock. And then, I went to the movie.

(b). 昨日は朝銀座に行って、それから映画を見に行った。

Yesterday morning I went to Ginza and then went to see a movie.

(c). レストランではステーキとサラダとそれからチーズケーキを食べました。

At the restaurant I ate steak, salad, and cheesecake.

(d). 湖の色は初めは青く、それから緑になりました。

The colour of the lake was blue in the beginning and then turned green.

(e). 月曜、火曜、それから木曜もとても忙しいです。

I am very busy on Monday, Tuesday, and Thursday, too.

Notes

1. それから can be used to indicate something which the speaker almost forgot to mention, as in (1) below:

ジョンとメリーと，ああそうだ，それからボブが来たよ。
John and Mary and, oh yeah, Bob came too.

2. それから 'and then' is often used by the hearer to elicit more information from the speaker, example:

A: 今日はどこへ行きましたか。
Where did you go today?
B: まず東京タワーに上りました。
First we went up Tokyo Tower.
A: それから？
And then?
B: 美術館に行きました。
I went to the art museum.
A: それから？
And then?
B: デパートに行って，食堂で昼ご飯を食べました。
I went to a department store and ate my lunch at the cafeteria.

3. Verbて, Verbます, Adjectiveい stemく(て) and Adjectiveな stemで do not have their own tense. The tense is identical with that of the main verb.

【Related Expressions】

1. Verbてから and Verbて、それから are similar but not identical in meaning. Verbてから expresses chronological sequence; Verbて、それから expresses chronological sequence and/or enumeration. For example, [1a] expresses purely chronological order and [1b], chronological order and enumeration.

(⇨ から2)

[1]

a. 山中さんは三時間ゴルフをしてから一時間泳いだ。
Mr. Yamanaka swam for one hour after having played golf for three hours.
b. 山中さんは三時間ゴルフをして、それから一時間泳いだ。
Mr. Yamanaka played golf tor three hours, and, on top of that, he swam for an hour.

II. "Verbて/Verbます、それから", "Adjectiveい stemくて、それから" and "Adjectiveなstemで、それから" are very similar to し when they express enumeration.

[2]

a. 今日はテニスをして、それから映画も見た。
Today I played tennis, and I saw a movie, too.
b. 今日はテニスもしたし、映画も見た。
Today I played tennis, and what’s more, saw a movie.

III. そうして/そして and それから are interchangeable when two events do not occurs simultaneously. Compare the following:

[3]

a. 音楽を間いて、そうして勉強するのが好きだ。
I like to listen to music while studying. / I like to listen to music first and then study.
b. 音楽を聞いて、それから勉強するのが好きだ。
I like to listen to music first and then study.

Basic Page 419

㊦それなら

Conjunction

If that is the case,	Then; in that case
【Related Expression: それでは】

Key Sentences

(ks). A:頭が痛いんです。 B:それなら直ぐ寝なさい。

A: I have a headache. B: In that case, go to sleep right away.

Examples

(a). A:映画を見に行きませんか。 B:明日試験があるんです。 A:それなら、明後日はどうですか。

A: Wouldn't you like to go see a movie? B: I have an exam tomorrow. A: Then, how about the day after tomorrow?

(b). A:日本にはどのぐらいいましたか。 B:三年です。 A:それなら、日本のことはよく知っているでしょうね。

A: How long did you stay in Japan? B: Three years. A: Then, you must know a lot about Japan.

Notes

1. それ 'that' refers to a previously-spoken sentence. In Key Sentence, for example, それ refers to A's entire sentence. B's sentence can be rephrased as (1):

頭が痛いんならすぐ寝なさい。
If you have a headache, go to sleep right away.

なら in (1) expresses the speaker's supposition concerning the truth of A’s statement.

(⇨ なら)

2. それなら has a more formal form, それならば and a more informal one, そんなら.

3. For restrictions imposed on the sentence that follows それなら, see the notes in なら.

【Related Expression】

Although それなら and それでは are very similar, they differ in that the former is dependent on verbal context while the latter is not. Thus, towards the end of one's visit with his superior or on an occasion when something is offered, それでは is used, as in [la, b].

[1]

a. それでは/*それなら失礼します。
Literally: Then I must be going now.
b. それでは/*それなら遠慮なくいただきます。
Literally: Then, I'il take it (without hesitation).

Basic Page 421

㊦それとも

Conjunction

A coordinate conjunction which connects two alternatives expressed by sentences.	Or; either~ or~
【Related Expression: か1】

Key Sentences

(ksa). この本が間違っているか(それとも)私が間違っているかどちらだ・です。

It's either that this book is wrong or that I am wrong.

(ksb). 刺身を食べますか。それともすき焼きにしますか。

Will you have sashimi, or will you have sukiyaki?

Examples

(a). 僕が来るか(それとも)村井さんが来るかどちらかです。

Either I will come or Mr. Murai will come.

(b). あの人は先生ですか。それとも医者ですか。

Is he a teacher or a doctor?

Notes

1. それとも combines statements (Key Sentence (A)) or questions (Key Sentence (B)). In Key Sentence (A), それとも can be omitted.

2. In Key Sentence (B), if the context is clear, abbreviated questions may occur in informal speech. For example, (1) may be used for Key Sentence (B).

刺身？それともすきやき？
Sashimi or sukiyaki?

Basic Page 422

㊦そして

Conjunction

A coordinate conjunction that connects two sentences.	And; and then
【Related Expression: それから】

Key Sentences

(ks). 今日は東京に行った・行きました。そして友達に会った・会いました。

I went to Tokyo today. And I met my friend there.

Examples

(a). 昨日は朝ゴルフをしました。そして午後はテニスをしました。

Yesterday I played golf in the morning. And I played tennis in the afternoon.

(b). この映画はつまらない。そして長過ぎる。

This movie is uninteresting. And it's too long.

(c). この花は奇麗です。そして安いです。

This flower is pretty. And it is inexpensive.

Notes

1. そして and そうして are normally interchangeable, but if そうして is used in the original sense of 'by doing so', it cannot be replaced by そして.

そうして/*そして直すんですか。
Literally: Do you fix it by doing so? (= Oh, that’s how you fix it?)

2. The two sentences in this construction can be combined using the て-form of verbs or adjectives, as in (2). This version is encountered less frequently than the above version and sounds a little redundant, because the て-form alone can mean '~ and'.

今日は東京に行って、そうして/そして友達に会いました。
I went to Tokyo today, and I met my friend there.

Basic Page 423

㊦過ぎる・すぎる

Auxiliary Verb (Group 2)

Someone/something does something excessively or is in a state excessively.

Too; do something too much/often; over-

Key Sentences

(ksa). ウィルソンは肉を食べ過ぎる・過ぎます。

Mr. Wilson eats too much meat.

(ksb). このアパートは私達には高過ぎる・過ぎます。

This apartment is too expensive for us.

Formation

(i)Vます	過ぎる
	話し過ぎる	Talk too much
	食べ過ぎる	Eat too much
(ii)Adjective {い/な} stem	過ぎる
	高過ぎる	Too expensive
	静か過ぎる	Too quiet

Examples

(a). 私は今朝寝過ぎて学校に遅れた。

I overslept this morning and was late for school.

(b). この机は私の部屋には大き過ぎる。

This desk is too big for my room.

(c). 田中先生の授業は大変過ぎるので辞めました。

I dropped Professor Tanaka's class because it was too demanding.

(d). 森さんは太り過ぎている。

Mr. Mori is too fat.

Notes

1. 過ぎる, which as a main verb means 'pass; go beyond some limit', is used as an auxiliary verb with Verbます or Adjective い/な stem and means 'do something excessively' or 'be ~ excessively'

2. The stem of いい 'good' changes to よ before 過ぎる, as in (1).

このアパートはトムにはよすぎる。
This apartment is too good for Tom.

3. The negative ない 'not exist/not' changes to なさ before 過ぎる.

ベンは力がなさすぎる。
Literally: Ben has too little power. (= Ben is too weak.)

友子は野菜を食べなさすぎる。
Tomoko eats too few vegetables.

4. For in "be too ~ for someone/something" is expressed by には, as in Key Sentence (B) and Example (b).

5. 過ぎる is a Group 2 verb; the negative form is 過ぎない, the polite form is 過ぎます and the て form is 過ぎて.

Basic Page 426

㊦好きだ・すきだ

Adjective (な)

Something or someone is what someone likes.	Like; be fond of
【Antonym Expression: 嫌いだ】

Key Sentences

(ks). 私はステーキが好きだ・好きです。

I like steak.

Examples

(a). 僕は野球が好きだ。

I like baseball.

(b). ジョンソンさんはジャズが大好きです。

Mr. Johnson loves jazz.

Notes

1. 好きだ is a な type adjective which requires the "は~が construction". That is, the experiencer (i.e., the person who likes someone or something) is marked by は and the liked object by が. (⇨ は~が) Note that the liked object is marked by が not by を.

2. In subordinate clauses, the experiencer is also marked by が, as in (1) and (2).

私がステーキが好きなことはみんな知っている。
Everybody knows that I like steak.

ジョンが好きなスポーツは野球です。
Literally: The sport John likes is baseball. (= John's favorite sport is baseball.)

3. "Like a lot" is expressed by 大好きだ, as in Example (b).

Basic Page 427

㊦少ない・すくない

Adjective (い)

Small in number of quantity.	Few; a small number of; little; a small quantity of ~
【Related Expression: わずか】
【Antonym Expression: 多い】

Key Sentences

(ks). この町はいいレストランが少ないです。

In this town good restaurants are few.

Examples

(a). この大学は女子学生が少ないです。

The number of female students at this college is small.

(b). 日本は犯罪が少ない。

There are few crimes in Japan.

(c). 日本語が書ける外国人は大変少ない。

Foreigners who can write Japanese are very few.

Notes

1. 少ない cannot be used before a noun, except in a relative clause where 少ない is the predicate of the subject of the relative clause.

*この大学は少ない女子学生がいます。

(Complementiser phrase: Example (a))

木が少ない町に住みたくありません。
I don't want to live in a town where there are few trees.

2. The distinction between English 'few' vs. 'a few' can be expressed by 少ない and 少しは as in (3) below.

a. 日本語が分かるアメリカ人は少ない。
Literally: Americans who can understand Japanese are few. (= Few Americans can understand Japanese.)
b. 日本語が分かるアメリカ人は少しはいる。
There are a few Americans who can understand Japanese.

【Related Expression】

少ない differs from a similar word 僅か(だ) in both meaning and use. The latter means 'insignificant number or amount of ~' and is used before a noun or in a predicate position or as an adverb. Only in [1a] below can 僅かだ be replaced by 少ない.

[1]

a. 私が持っているお金はわずかだ。
The money I possess is very little.
b. わずかなお金で暮らしている。
He is living with a paltry sum of money.
c. あの人はわずかのことですぐ怒る。
He gets angry easily over a trifling matter.
d. その時僕はわずか(に)六つでした。
At that time I was merely six years old.

Basic Page 428

㊦する (1)

Verb (Irregular)

Someone/Something causes a state or action to take place.	Do; make; play; play the role of ~; wear
【Related Expression: なる; やる】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 中山さんはテニスをする・します。

Mr. Nakayama plays tennis.

(ksb). リーズさんは英語の先生をしている・います。

Mr. Leeds is an English teacher.

(ksc). 先生はテストを易しくした・しました。

The teacher made his test easy.

(ksd). 木口は息子を医者にした・しました。

Kiguchi caused his son to become a physician.

(kse). 私は中国語を勉強している・います。

I am studying Chinese.

(ksf). 京子は奇麗なスカーフをしている・います。

Kyoko is wearing a beautiful scarf.

Examples

(a). 日本人は大抵土曜日も仕事をする。

The Japanese usually work on Saturdays, too.

(b). ビルはハムレットをするつもりだ。

Bill is going to play Hamlet.

(c). 陽子は部屋を奇麗にした。

Yoko made her room clean.

(d). 僕はよく車を運転します。

I often drive a car.

(e). 一男はアメリカ人を妻にした。

Kazuo made a wife of an American.

(f). いいネクタイをしているね。

You're wearing a nice tie, aren't you?

Notes

1. する1 means 'to cause some state or action', and corresponds to English 'do' or 'make'.

2. Key Sentence (A) and Example (a) are cases in which the subject is doing/playing something Key Sentence (B) as well as Example (b) are cases where the subject is playing a social or dramatic role. Key sentence (C) and (D) and Example (c) have causative meanings.

3. Key Sentence (C) and Example (c) require that either Adjective い stem+く or Adjective な stem+に (i.e., adverbial form of Adjective (い/な) be used before する. Key Sentence (D) and Example (e) use a Noun+に in front of する.

4. The Direct Objects of Key Sentence (F) and Example (f) are items that cover a small part of the human body such as ネクタイ '(neck)tie', 手袋 'gloves' and 腕時計 'wristwatch'. When used with such direct objects, する means 'wear'.

5. The construction in Key Sentence (D) (i.e., Noun+にする) also has an idiomatic use, meaning 'decide on ~'.

(⇨ にする)

6. Sino-Japanese compounds+する such as 勉強する 'study' and 運転する 'drive' can be used as transitive verbs, as in Key Sentence (E) and Example (d). The Sino-Japanese compound itself can also be used as the direct object of する. For example, compare Key Sentence (E) and Example (d) with (1) and (2), respectively.

私は中国語の勉強をしている。
Literally: I am doing the study of Chinese. (= I am studying Chinese.)

僕はよく車の運転をします。
Literally: I often do the driving of a car. (= I often drive a car.)

Note in Sentences (1) and (2) that the direct object in Key Sentence (E) and Example (d) is connected to the Sino-Japanese compound by the particle の, creating a noun phrase which is the direct object of する.

7. In contemporary Japanese it is very common to use する with loanwords. The majority of loanwords are from English verbs. Some typical examples follow:

ヒットする	make a hit	ノックする	knock on the door
ドライブする	drive a car	キスする	kiss
タイプする	type	パスする	pass an exam

It is also common to use する with sound symbolisms, especially phenomimes and psychomimes.

びくびくする	be in fear	かっとする	flare up
ぼんやりする	be absent-minded	はっとする	be taken aback
ぞっとする	shiver	いらいらする	become irritated

8. する basically means some causative change that is under human control, whereas なる 'become' basically means spontaneous change that is almost beyond human control. Since injury normally occurs due to human carelessness, する is acceptable, but なる is unacceptable, as shown in below. In contrast to injury, illness is assumed to occur regardless of human carefulness or carelessness, so it should not take する. But in actuality it does. Illness can take する when it is talked about as if it were something under human control, for example, cases of past illness (as in (4a)), apologies implying that one has caused illness due to carelessness on one's part (as in (4b)), and statements of one's medical history (as in (4c)). Otherwise, illness cannot take する, as shown in (4d).

a. 病気/けがをする。
One becomes ill/sustains injury.
b. 病気/*けがになる。
One becomes ill.

a. 若い頃はよく病気をした/?になった。
When I was young, I often became ill.
b. いつも病気をして/?になってすみません。
I’m sorry that I always become ill.
c. —年に何回ぐらい病気をしますか/?になりますか。
About how many times do you become ill per year?
d. きのう急に病気になりました/*をしました。
I suddenly became ill yesterday.

9. する can be used in the construction を+Verbます+する, a humble, polite form of verb. The subject of this humble verb must be the speaker or his in-group member.

私がお読み/書き/持ちします。
I will read/write/carry it (for you).

A further degree of humbleness can be expressed by replacing する with its humble version いたす/いたします.

(⇨ お~する)

【Related Expressions】

I. なる 'become' forms an intransitive-transitive pair with する, although they are not phonetically related. Semantically, なる seems more passive, while する seems more causative. Compare the following pairs of sentences:

[1]

a. 山田は停学になった。
Literally: Yamada became suspension from school. (= Yamada got suspended from school.)
b. 学校は山田を停学にした。
Literally: The school made Yamada suspended from school. (= The school suspended Yamada.)

[2]

a. 山田は本を書くことになった。
It's been decided that Yamada will write a book.
b. 山田は本を書くことにした。
Yamada has decided to write a book.

(⇨ ことになる; ことにする)

II. する can be replaced by its informal version やる (Group 1 Verb) when it means 'do/play something' as in Key Sentence (A) or 'play a dramatic/social role' as in Key Sentence (B). Also, if する takes a Sino-Japanese compound as its direct object (as in 勉強をする 'Literally: do a study of'), it can be replaced by やる.

Basic Page 434

㊦する (2)

Verb (Irregular)

Someone or something has some (semi)permanent attribute.	Have
【Related Expression: は~が】

Key Sentences

(ks). 洋子は長い足をしている・います。

Yoko has long legs.

Examples

(a). 一男は丈夫な体をしています。

kazuo has a strong body.

(b). この机は丸い形をしている。

This table has a round shape.

Notes

1. The sentence pattern is:

Topic (subject) + Adjectiveい/な + {Noun of Bodily Part/Noun of Attribute} + している/います.

A bodily part or an attribute must be inalienably possessed by the subject. In other words, it must be such an essential part of the possessor (=subject) that he/it cannot exist without the part or the attribute.

2. In the main clause the verb する always takes the ている form, but in a relative clause ている may be replaced by た as in:

長い足をしている/した洋子
Yoko, who has long legs

【Related Expression】

Sentences of this construction can be restated using the は~が construction as follows:

Noun1 は Adjective Noun2 をしている → Noun1 は Noun2 が Adjective.

Thus, the Key Sentence example can be rephrased as:

[1]

洋子は足が長い/長いです。
Yoko has long legs.

The only perceptible difference between Key Sentence and [1] is that the latter sentence is more analytical than the former. In other words, in Key Sentence 長い足 'long legs' is one unit, but in [1] 足 'legs', is first presented as a single unit and is then further characterized as 長い 'long'.

Basic Page 435

㊦する (3)

Verb (Irregular)

Something is perceived by someone's non-visual senses.

Fear; smell; hear

Key Sentences

(ks). 子供達の声がした・しました。

I heard children's voices.

Examples

(a). この魚は変な味がしますね。

This fish tastes funny, doesn't it?

(b). この切れはざらざらしている。

This cloth feels rough.

(c). この花はいい匂いがする。

This flower smells good.

(d). 私は寒気がします。

I feel a chill.

Notes

If something is perceived visually, either the ~をしている structure or the は~が structure is used.

(⇨ する2; は~が)

このりんごはきれいな色をしている。
This apple has a pretty color.

このリンゴは色がきれいだ。
This apple has a pretty color.

Basic Page 436

㊦する (4)

Verb (Irregular)

A verb that indicates how much something costs or a duration of time.

Cost; lapse

Key Sentences

(ksa). この時計は十万円する・します。

This watch costs 100,000 yen.

(ksb). 後一年したら大学を出る・出ます。

In another year I'll graduate from college.

Examples

(a). A:それはどのぐらいしましたか。 B:二十五万円ぐらいしました。

A: About how much did it cost? B: It cost about 250,000 yen.

(b). もう少しすれば主人が帰ってまいります。

In a short time my husband will be here.

Notes

When する4 is used to mean 'lapse of time', it can only be used in a subordinate clause, as in Key Sentence (B) and Ex. (b). Therefore, the following sentence in which する4 is used in the main clause is ungrammatical.

*三年しました。
Correct: 三年たちました。
Three years passed.

Basic Page 437

㊦すると

Conjunction

A coordinate conjunction which connects two sentences (the second sentence either describes an event which takes place right after the event described in the first sentence or it expresses a logical guess related to the event in the first sentence.)

Thereupon~; then~; and~

Key Sentences

(ksa). ジョギングを始めました。するとご飯が美味しくなりました。

I began jogging. Then, I began to have a good appetite.

(ksb). A:今日は月曜日ですよ。 B:するとあのデパートは休みですね。

A: Today is Monday, you know. B: Then, that department store is closed, isn't it?

Examples

(a). 私は自転車を買いました。すると弟も欲しがりました。

I bought a bike. Then, my younger brother wanted one, too.

(b). 頭が痛かったのでアスピリンを飲みました。すると痛みがすぐ止まりました。

I took an aspirin because I had a headache. Then, the headache disappeared right away.

(c). A:息子は今高校三年です。 B:すると、来年は大学受験ですね。

A: My son is now a junior at high school. B: Then, he is going to take a college entrance examination next year, isn't he?

Notes

と of すると is the conjunction と4. (⇨ と4) Therefore, in Key Sentence (A), Sentence2 normally expresses an event that is beyond the control of the speaker; that is why Sentence2 cannot be a command, a request, or a suggestion.

【Related Expressions】

I. すると is the shortened form of そうすると. These two constructions have identical meanings and can be used interchangeably. They are related to another expression それでは 'then', but unlike それでは, the second sentence in the (そう)すると to construction cannot be a command, request, suggestion, or something which can be controlled by the subject of the sentence. (⇨ それでは) Thus,

A: 今日は忙しいです。
I’m busy today.
B: それでは/(そう)するとあした行きましょう。
Then, let’s go there tomorrow.

A : (= same as [1] A)
B: それでは/*(そう)するとあした来てください。
Then, please come tomorrow.

A: あなたが来ないと困るんです。
It will be difficult if you don’t come.
B: それでは/*(そう)すると行きます。
Literally: Then, I’ll go.

II. それでは 'then' can replace the すると in Key Sentence (B) but not the すると in Key Sentence (A), because それでは requires that the speakers of Sentence1 and Sentence2 be different.

Basic Page 441

㊦たい

Auxiliary Adjective (い)

An auxiliary adjective which expresses a desire to do something.	Want (to do something); would like (to do something)
【Related Expression: 欲しい1; 欲しい2】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 私は日本へ行きたいです。

I want to go to Japan.

(ksb). 僕は今ピザを・が食べたいです。

I want to eat pizza now.

(ksc). 鈴木さんはアメリカへ行きたがっている・います。

Mr. Suzuki is showing signs of wanting to go to America./ Mr. Suzuki wants to go to America.

Formation

Vます	たい
	話したい	Want to talk
	食べたい	Want to eat

Examples

(a). 僕は冷たいビールを・が飲みたい。

I want to drink a cold beer.

(b). 今日は何を・が食べたいですか。

What do you want to eat today?

(c). 三木さんは車を買いたがっている。

Mr. Miki wants to buy a car.

Notes

1.たい is an い type auxiliary adjective which expresses a person's desire to do something. Since Verbますたい expresses a very personal feeling, it is usually used only for the first person in declarative sentences and for the second person in interrogative sentences. For the third person, Verbますがっている 'literally: is showing signs of wanting to do something' is usually used, as in Key Sentence (C) and Example (c). (⇨ がる) Verbますたい with the third person subject is acceptable, however, in the following situations:

和男はとても行きたかった。
Kazuo wanted to go very badly.

a. 一郎も行きたいと言っている。
Ichiro says he wants to go, too.
b. 利子は日本へ帰りたいそうだ。
I heard that Toshiko wants to go back to Japan.

野村さんはあなたと話したいんですよ。
(The explanation is that) Miss Nomura wants to talk with you.

(⇨ のだ)

村山さんはのり子と踊りたいらしい。
It seems that Mr. Murayama wants to dance with Noriko.
b. 早田さんは早く家族に会いたそうだ。
It looks like Mr. Hayata wants to see his family soon.

2. In some situations, if the verb in Verbますたい is a transitive verb, the direct object can be marked either by が or by を, as seen in Key Sentence (B), Examples (a) and (b). In general, the choice between が and を seems to depend on the degree of desire. That ist when the desire to do something is high, が is preferred; when it is low, を is used. Compare (4) and (5):

私は水が/?を飲みたい。
I want to drink some water.

私は水を/?が飲みたいが…
I want to drink water but (my stomach doesn't accept it anymore)...

Under the following conditions, が cannot be used even if the degree of desire is high.

(A) When a long element intervenes between the direct object and the verb:

私は水を/*が出かける前に飲みたい。
I want to drink water before I leave home.

(B) When the main verb is in the passive form:

私は先生にこの絵を/*がほめられたい。
Literally: I want to have this picture praised by my teacher.

a. 私は早くこの電車を/*が降りたい。
I want to get off this train soon.
b. 私は公園を/*が歩きたい。
I want to walk through the park.

(⇨ を2; を3)

3. In the construction Verbますたがっている, が can never be used to mark the direct object.

三木さんは車を/*が買いたがっている。
Mr. Miki wants to buy a car.

4. Verbますたい cannot be used to express an invitation. The following sentences are inappropriate in invitation situations.

a. 私と一緒に行きたいですか。
Do you want to go with me?
b. あした食事に来たいですか。
Would you like to come to dinner tomorrow?

In these situations negative questions are used, as seen in (11).

(⇨ ましょう)

私と一緒に行きませんか。
Wouldn't you like to go with me?

【Related Expressions】

The idea of 'want' in English is expressed by either たい, 欲しい1 or 欲しい2. たい is used when the experiencer wants to do something. 欲しい1 is used when the experiencer wants something. 欲しい2 is used when the experiencer wants someone to do something.

(⇨ 欲しい1; 欲しい2)

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㊦堪らない・たまらない

Phrase

The speaker or whomever he empathises with cannot cope with a situation expressed by the て phrase.	Unbearably~; extremely; be dying to do~
【Related Expression: しかがない】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 今日は暑くて堪らない・堪りません。

It is unbearably hot today.

(ksb). 数学が嫌いで堪らない・堪りません。

I really hate math.

Formation

Adjective い stem	くて堪らない
	寒くて堪らない	Something is unbearable cold
Adjective な stem	で堪らない
	不便で堪らない	Something is unbearable inconvenient

Examples

(a). この本は面白くて堪りません。

This book is extremely interesting.

(b). 父が死んで、悲しくて堪りません。

My father died and I'm awfully sad.

(c). 美味しい魚が食べたくて堪りません。

I'm dying to eat some good fish.

(d). 僕はあの子が好きで堪らない。

I just love that girl.

(e). 兄は田中先生の授業が嫌で堪らなかった。

My older brother really hated Mr. Tanaka's class.

Notes

1. て/で堪らない is an idiomatic phrase used to express the fact that some situation is unbearable in the extreme for the speaker or someone with whom he empathizes.

2. The adjectives used before て/で refer to human feelings.

3. There is no affirmative counterpart of this construction, * ~て/でたまる.

【Related Expression】

て堪らない (literally: ~ and I can't stand it) can be replaced by て仕方がない (literally: ~ and I don't know what to do about it). The only difference is that the former is more emotive than the latter. But when て仕方がない is directly preceded by Vebても, it cannot be replaced by 堪らない, as shown in [1].

[1]

そんな本は読んでも仕方がない/*読んでたまらない。
There is no use reading that sort of book.

Basic Page 447

㊦為(に)・ため(に)

Noun

A noun that indicates a benefit, a purpose, a reason or a casue.	On account of ~; for the benefit of ~; for the good of ~; for the sake of ~; on behalf of ~; for the purpose of ~; in order to ~; because of ~; owing to ~
【Related Expression: から3; に5; ので; のに2】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 学生は試験のために勉強する・勉強します。

Students study in preparation for exams./ Students study because there are exams.

(ksb). 私は日本のことを知るため(に)日本へ行く・行きます。

I'll go to Japan (in order) to learn about Japan.

(ksc). 今年は雪があまり降らないため(に)スキーが出来ない・出来ません。

Because it doesn't snow very much this year, we can't ski.

(ksd). 外国人のためのいい辞書がない・ありません。

There aren't (any) good dictionaries for foreigners.

Formation

(i){V/Adjective い} informal	ために
	{話す /話した}ために	In order to talk/because someone talks/talked
	{食べる /食べた}ために	In order to eat/because someone eats/ate
	{高い /高かった}ために	Because something is/was high
(ii)Adjective な stem	{なだった}ために
	{静かな/静かだった}ために	Because something is/was quiet
(iii)Noun	{のだった}ために
	{先生の/先生だった}ために	For the sake of the teacher/because of the teacher/because someone is/was a teacher
(iv)Demonstrative Adjective	ために
	{この /その}ために	For the sake of this/that, because of this/that

Examples

(a). 日本人は会社のためによく働きます。

The Japanese work hard for the sake of their company.

(b). 雪のため(に)学校が休みになった。

The school was closed because of the snow.

(c). ジャクソンさんは研究のため(に)ドイツに行った。

Mr. Jackson went to Germany for the purpose of research.

(d). 私は父が死んだため(に)大学に行けなかった。

I couldn't go to college because my father died.

(e). 体を強くするため(に)毎日プールで泳いでいる。

I'm swimming every day in the pool in order to strengthen my body.

(f). 親が甘かったため(に)子供が駄目になった。

Because the parents were soft, the children got spoiled.

(g). 字が下手なため(に)人に笑われた。

I was laughed at because my handwriting is so poor.

(h). フランスに行ったのは香水を買うためだ。

It was for the purpose of buying perfume that I went to France.

Notes

1. 為に expresses cause or reason when it is preceded by an Adjective い or an Adjective な, as in Examples (f) and (g), or when the main clause describes a noncontrollable situation and/or when the 為に clause is in the past tense, as in Example (d). In these cases, it never expresses purpose. Consider the additional examples in (1).

a. 仕事の為に何もほかの事が出来ない。
Because of the job I can't do anything else.
b. 会社の為に朝から晚まで働いている。
He's working from morning till night for the sake of his company.

(1a) gets the reason/cause interpretation, because the main clause describes a noncontrollable situation, whereas (1b) gets the purpose interpretation, because the main clause describes a controllable situation.

2. The に of 為に can be dropped, as in Examples (b), (c), (d), (e), (f) and (g), if a phrase(s) intervenes between the main verb and 為に.

【Related Expressions】

I. When 為 is used to mean reason or cause, it can be replaced by から or ので. Thus, Key Sentence (C) and Example (d) can be rephrased as [1a] and [1b], respectively.

[1]

a. 今年は雪があまり降らないから/のでスキーが出来ない。
We cannot ski because it hasn't snowed very much this year.
b. 私は父が死んだから/ので大学に行けなかった。
I couldn't go to college because my father died.

The difference between 為 and other markers of reason/cause is that 為 is more formal than the others and is seldom used in informal conversation.

(⇨ から3; ので)

II. When 為 is used to mean purpose, it can be replaced by either Verb informal nonpastのに or Verbますに Verb of motion. However, 為に can be replaced by のに only when one does something in the process of achieving some goal. Thus, [3a] can be paraphrased as [3b] but [4a] cannot be paraphrased as [4b].

[3]

a. 漢字を調べるために辞書を使う。
In order to find out about kanji I use a dictionary.
b. 漢字を調べるのに辞書を使う。
In order to find out about kanji I use a dictionary.

[4]

a. 体を強くするために毎日プールで泳いでいる。
I'm swimming every day in the pool in order to strengthen my body.
b. ??体を強くするのに毎日プールで泳いでいる。
I'm swimming every day in the pool in order to strengthen my body.

Note also that 為 can be replaced by Verbますに Verb of motion only when 為 is used with a Verb of motion. The difference between 為 and other markers of purpose is that 為 is the most formal and least colloquial of the three.

Basic Page 452

㊦たら

Conjunction

A subordinate conjunction which indicates that the action/state expressed by the main clause in a sentence takes place after the action/state expressed by the subordinate clause.	If; when; after
【Related Expression: ば; なら; と4; 時】

Key Sentences

(ks). 山田さんが来たら私は帰る・帰ります。

When/If Mr. Yamada comes, I'll go home.

Formation

{V/Adjective (い/な)N+copula} informal past	ら
	話したら	If/when someone talks/talked
	高かったら	If something is/were expensive
	静かだったら	If something is/were quiet
	先生だったら	If someone is/were a teacher

Examples

(a). 先生に聞いたら直ぐ分かった。

When I asked my teacher, I understood right away.

(b). 私は大学を出たら小学校の先生になります。

I'll be an elementary school teacher after graduating from college.

(c). 私は忙しいですから、面白かったら読みますが、面白くなかったら読みませんよ。

I'm busy, so I'll read it if it's interesting, but I won't if it's not interesting.

(d). 嫌いだったら残して下さい。

If you don't like it, please leave it.

(e). 英語だったら分かると思います。

I think I'll understand it if it's English.

Notes

1. The meaning of Sentence1たらSentence2 varies depending on the contents of Sentence1 and Sentence2 and also on the situation in which this construction is used. However, Sentence always represents an antecedent and Sentence2 a subsequence. For example, in Key Sentence, Mr. Yamada's coming precedes the speaker's returning home. Likewise, in Example (a), the speaker's asking his teacher precedes his understanding something. If this relation does not hold, this construction cannot be used. For example, (1) cannot be expressed by the たら construction because the event of Sentence1, the speaker's going to Chicago, does not precede the event of Sentence2, his going there by car.

When I go to Chicago, I usually go by car.
*私はシカゴへ行ったらたいてい車で行きます。

(In this situation, 時 is used. (⇨ 時)) For the same reason, たら is ungrammatical in the situation in (2).

If you go to Chicago, go by bus.
*シカゴへ行ったらバスで行きなさい。

(In this case, なら is used. (⇨ なら))

2. In Sentence1たらSentence2, it is often the case that Sentence1 represents a condition and Sentence2 an event which occurs under that condition. Therefore, the whole sentence basically means 'when Sentence1 is satisfied, Sentence2 takes place' or 'Sentence1 brings about Sentence2', as in Examples (c), (d) and (e).

3. As seen in Key Sentence, たら may mean 'when' in one case and 'if' in another. たら means 'when' if Sentence1 is a certainty; if not, たら means 'if'. Thus, in (3), たら means 'when'.

十二時になったら帰ります。
When/*If it is twelve o'clock, I'll go home.

もし before Sentence1たら makes sentences unambiguous; it always means 'if Sentence1'. Example:

もし山田さんが来たら私は帰ります。
If/*When Mr. Yamada comes, I'll go home.

4. In Sentence1たらSentence2, Sentence2 can be a command, a request, a suggestion, an invitation or a volitional sentence.

(5)

仕事が早く終わっらた僕のうちに

	⎧a. 来なさい。
	⎪b. 来てください。
	⎪c. 来たらどうですか。
	⎩d. 来ませんか。

If you finish your work early,

	⎧a. come to my place.
	⎪b. please come to my place.
	⎪c. why don't you come to my place?
	⎩d. wouldn't you like to come to my place?

仕事が早く終わったらおうちにお伺いします。
If I finish my work early, I'll visit your place.

5. Sentence1たらSentence2 can also be used in counterfactual situations, as in (7).

a. お金があったらこんなうちにはいない。
If I had money, I wouldn't be in such a house.
b.あの時お金があったら日本へ行っていたでしょう。
If I had had money at that time, I would probably have gone to Japan.

6. When Sentence2 in "Sentence1たらSentence2" represents a past action, the action cannot be one intentionally taken by the agent after the action or event represented by Sentence1. Thus, the (a) sentences in (8) and (9) are acceptable, but the (b) sentences are not.

a. 学校へ行ったら、偶然上田さんに会った。
When I went to school, I happened to see Mr. Ueda.
b. *学校へ行ったら、上田さんと話をした。
When I went to school, I talked with Mr. Ueda.

a. お酒を飲んだら寝てしまった。
After I drank sake, I fell asleep.
b. *お酒を飲んだら寝た。
After I drank sake, I went to bed.

【Related Expressions】

ば, なら and と4 have similar functions but they are different trom たら in the following ways:

I. In Sentence1たらSentence2, if the event in Sentence1 precedes the event in Sentence2, those events can be past events. This is also the case with Sentence1とSentence2, but not with Sentence1ばSentence2 and Sentence1ならSentence2, as in [1].

[1]

a. 先生に聞いたら/聞くと/*聞けば/*聞いた(の)ならすぐ分かった。
When I asked my teacher, I understood it immediately.
b.キャシーのアパートに行ったら/行くと/*行けば/*行った(の)ならアンデイーがいた。
When I went to Cathy's apartment, Andy was there.

II. As stated in Note 4, Sentence2 in Sentence1たらSentence2 can be a command, a request, a suggestion, an invitation or a volitional sentence. This is also the case with Sentence2 in Sentence1ばSentence2 and Sentence1ならSentence2 but not with Sentence2 in Sentence1とSentence2. Example:

[2]

問安かったら/安ければ/安い(の)なら/*安いと買いなさい。
Buy it, if it's cheap.

II. Although Sentence2 in Sentence1たらSentence2, Sentence1ばSentence2 and Sentence1ならSentence2 can be a command a request, a suggestion, an invitation or a volitional sentence, the meanings are not exactly the same. The following examples show the differences clearly.

[3]

a. ベンが来たら、私は帰ります。
When/If Ben comes, I'll go home.
b. ベンがくれば、私は帰ります。
If Ben comes, I'll go home. (If not, I'll stay here.)
c. ベンが来る(の)なら、私は帰ります。
It it is true that Ben is coming, I'll go home.

As seen above, [3a] is ambiguous; it is not clear that Ben is coming. If Ben's coming is certain, [3a] indicates the time the speaker will leave. If Ben's coining is uncertain, [3a] indicates the condition under which the speaker will leave. In both cases, however, Ben's coming precedes the speaker's leaving. [3b] is similar to the second case of [3a] (i.e., the case in which Ben's coming is uncertain). However, [3b] focuses more on the condition. That is, [3b] implies something like 'the condition under which I go home is Ben's coming here'. In [3b] also, Ben's coming precedes the speaker's leaving. Sentence1 in [3c] also indicates the condition under which the speaker returns home. In this case, however, Ben's coming does not necessarily precede the speaker's leaving because the condition under which the speaker goes home is that Ben's coming !s true, not that Ben comes (to a certain place).

IV. As stated in Note 5, Sentence1たらSentence2 can be used in counterfactual situations, and so can Sentence1ばSentence2 and Sentence1ならSentence2. However, Sentence1とSentence2 cannot be used in such situations except for the idiomatic expression Sentenceといい/よかった 'It would be good/It would have been good if Sentence'. Example:

[4]

あの時お金があったら/あれば/あったなら/*あると日本に行っていただろう。
If I had had money at that time, I would have gone to Japan.

Basic Page 457

㊦たらどうですか

Phrase

A phrase which expresses a suggestion (literally: How would you feel if you do something?)	Why don't you do ~?; what about doing ~?
【Related Expression: 方がいい】

Key Sentences

(ks). もっと日本の本を読んだらどうですか。

Why don't you read more Japanese books?

Formation

Vinformal past	らどうですか。
	話したらどうですか。	Why don't you talk~ ?
	食べたらどうですか。	Why don't you eat~

Examples

(a). サラダも食べたらどうですか。

Why don't you eat salad, too?

(b). 山村先生に聞いたらどうですか。

Why don't you ask Professor Yamamura?

Notes

1. Verb informal past らどうですか is an idiomatic phrase derived from the "Sentence1 たら Sentence2" construction and expressing a suggestion.

(⇨ たら)

2. The informal version is Verb informal past らどう? More polite versions are Verb informal past らどうでしょう(か) and Verb informal past らいかがでしょう(か).

(⇨ だろう)

【Related Expression】

ほうがいい also expresses suggestion, but this phrase is close to a command (especially when it is preceded by Verb informal past), and, therefore, is stronger than たらどうですか.

Basic Page 458

㊦たり～たりする

Phrase

A phrase which expresses an inexhaustive listing of action or states.

Do things like~ and~; sometimes~ and sometimes~

Key Sentences

(ksa). 私達は歌ったり躍ったりした・しました。

We did things like singing and dancing.

(ksb). このレストランのステーキは大きかったり小さかったりする・します。

Steaks at this restaurant are sometimes big and sometimes small.

(ksc). A:毎日テープを聞いていますか。 B:いいえ、聞いたり聞かなかったりです。

A: Are you listening to tapes every day? B: No, I listen at one time and don't listen at another (only off and on).

Formation

{V/Adjective (い/な) Noun+Copula} informal past	り(する)
	話したり(する)	Someone (does) things like talking
	高かったり(する)	Something is sometimes expensive
	静かだったり(する)	Something is sometimes quiet
	先生だったり(する)	Someone is sometimes a teacher

Examples

(a). 私はニューヨークでミュージカルを見たりコンサートを聞いたりした。

In New York I did things like seeing musicals and listening to concerts.

(b). トムは来たり来なかったりする。

Tom comes at one time and doesn't at another time (Tom doesn't always come).

(c). 明日は雨が降ったり止んだりするでしょう。

It will probably rain off and on tomorrow.

(d). この店の魚は新しかったり古かったりする。

This shop's fish is sometimes fresh and sometimes old.

(e). 日本語の先生は日本人だったりアメリカ人だったりします。

Teachers of Japanese are sometimes Japanese and sometimes American.

Notes

1. The "XたりYたりする" construction generally expresses an inexhaustive listing of actions or states. "Inexhaustive" means that in a given situation there may be additional, unstated actions or states. (The ex-haustive listing of actions or states is expressed by the て form. (⇨ て))

(Complementiser phrase: と1; や)

2. する usually follows "XたりYたり" regardless of the part of speech of X and Y, and expresses the tense, the aspect (e,g., progressive, perfect) and the formality level of the sentence.

3. This construction usually lists two actions or two states, but it can list more than two actions or two states, as in (1).

本を読んだり、映画を見たり、テープを間いたりして日本語を勉強している。
I'm studying Japanese by doing things like reading books, seeing movies and listening to tapes.

Sometimes only one action or state is listed in this construction, as in (2).

新聞を読んだりして友達が来るのを待っていた。
I was waiting for my friend to come, doing things like reading a newspaper.

4. If "XたりYたりする" is not the final segment of a sentence and the predicate is an adjective, する may be omitted, as in (3).

歌ったり踊ったり(して)とても楽しかった。
We did things like singing and dancing, and it was a lot of fun.

If the predicate is a verb, however, する cannot be omitted as in (4).

*私達はテニスをしたり泳いだりして/Ø遊んだ。
Literally: We played doing things like playing tennis and swimming.

5. As seen in Key Sentence (C) and Example (f), a slightly different pattern, XたりYたりだ, is also used in some situations. This pattern is used when a speaker describes someone's or something's inconstant state.

Basic Page 461

㊦たって

Conjunction

Even if someone did something or something were in some state (the desired result would not come about) or even if someone or something is in some state.	Even if ~
【Related Expression: ても】

Key Sentences

(ksa). あの人には話したって分からない・分かりません。

Even if I tell him that, he won't understand it.

(ksb). 僕はその切符を高くたって買う・買います。

I will buy the ticket even if it is expensive.

Formation

(i)Vinformal past	って
	話しって	Even if someone talks/talked
	食べだって	Even if someone eats/ate
(ii)Adjective い stem	くたって
	高くたって	Even if something is/were expensive
(iii){Adjective な stem/ N}	だっ(たっ)て
	静かだっ(たっ)て	Even if something is/were quiet
	先生だっ(たっ)て	Even if someone is/were a teacher

Examples

(a). お金があったって車は買いたくない。

Even if I had money, I wouldn't want to buy a car.

(b). 本を買ったって、忙しくて読めない。

Even if I buy books, I'm too busy to read them.

(c). 汚くたって構いません。

I don't care even if it is dirty.

(d). 遠くて不便だってマイ・ホームなら構いません。

Even if it is far away and inconvenient, it doesn't matter if it is 'my home'.

(e). どんなにいい先生だって時々間違います。

No matter how good a teacher may be, he sometimes makes mistakes.

Notes

1. たって is used strictly in informal spoken Japanese, and is used to indicate something counter to fact. However, the counterfactual (or subjunctive) nature of this construction is not very strong. See Example (a).

2. たって can take どんなに (as in Example (e)) meaning 'no matter how'. More examples follow.

a. どんなに考えたって分からないよ。
No matter how hard you think, you won't understand it.
b. どんなに寒くたって大丈夫です。
No matter how cold it is, it's all right.

【Related Expression】

たって can be replaced by ても. The difference is that ても can be used in spoken and written language and that it is less emotive than たって. Thus, if Example (a) is replaced by the following sentence, the counterfactuality of having money is nullified, and the entire sentence sounds much less emotive.

[1]

お金があっても車は買いたくない。
Even if I have money, I don’t want to buy a car.

Basic Page 464

㊦て

て Form

The て form ending of verbs and い type adjectives (The て form ending of な type adjectives and the て form of the copula is で.

And; -ing

Key Sentences

(ks1). ジムは日本へ行って勉強した・勉強しました。

Jim went to Japan and studied (there).

(ks2). ここのステーキは安くて美味しい・美味しいです。

Steaks here are inexpensive and delicious.

(ks3). このアパートは静かでいい・いいです。

This apartment is quiet and good.

(ks4). 私の父は先生で高校で英語を教えている・います。

My father is a teacher and teaches English at senior high school.

Formation

(i) Group 1 verbs
すverbs	話す→話して	Someone talks and
くverbs	歩く→歩いて	Someone walks and
Exception	行く→行って	Someone goes and
ぐverbs	泳ぐ→泳いで	Someone swims and
む/ぶ/ぬverbs	飲む→飲んで	Someone drinks something and
	遊ぶ→遊んで	Someone plays and
	死ぬ→死んで	Someone dies and
つ/う/るverbs	待つ→待って	Someone waits and
	買う→買って	Someone buys something and
	取る→取って	Someone takes something and
(ii)Group 2 verbs	Vstemて
	食べて	Someone eats something and
(iii)Irregular verbs	来る→来て	Someone comes and
	する→して	Someone does something and
(iv)Adjective い	Adjective い stemくて
	高くて	Something is expensive and
(v)Adjective な	Adjective な stemで
	静かで	Something is quiet and
(vi)Noun+copula	Nで
	先生で	Someone is a teacher and

Examples

(a). 私はコートを脱いでハンガーにかけた。

Taking off my coat, I hung it on a hanger.

(b). ワインを飲み過ぎて頭が痛い。

I've drunk too much wine and have a headache.

(c). 私の部屋は狭くて暗い。

My room is small and dark.

(d). このスープは辛くて飲めない。

This soup is salty (or (spicy) hot) and I can't drink it.

(e). 私はテニスが大好きでよく友達とする。

I love tennis and often play with my friends.

(f). ゆみ子は今大学三年で専攻は日本文学です。

Yumiko is a junior at college now and her major is Japanese literature.

(g). 伊藤先生は今週病気で、かわりに村田先生が教えた。

Professor Itou was ill this week and Professor Murata taught for him.

Notes

1. The て form functions, in part, to link sentences. That is, if the last element of the predicate of a clause is the て form, it means that that clause is not the end of the sentence and that another predicate or clause follows it. For example, in Example (b) the last element of the predicate of the first clause is 過ぎて, the て form of 過ぎる 'do something too much'，and 過ぎて is followed by another clause 頭が痛い 'literally:(my) head aches'.

2. The meaning of the て form varies according to context, but generally, it corresponds to 'and' or '-ing' in participial constructions.

3. When the て form links two predicates, the relationship between the two is often one of the following:

[A1: the action or state expressed by the first predicate; A2: the action or state expressed by the second predicate]

(A) A1 and A2 occur sequentially, as in Key Sentence (1) and Example (a).

(B) A1 and A2 are two states of someone or something, as in Key Sentence (2), Key Sentence (4), Examples (c) and (f).

て

(D) A1 is the means by which someone does A2 or the manner in which someone does A2. Examples:

僕は歩いて帰った。
Literally: I walked and went home. (= I went home on foot.)

健ニは急いでご飯を食べた。
Literally: Kenji hurried and ate his meal.(= Kenji ate his meal in a hurry.)

(E) A1 is contrasted with A2. Example:

男は外で働いて、女はうちで働く。
Literally: Men work outside and women work inside.

(F) A2 is unexpected in terms of A1. Example:

トムはいつも遊んでいてテストが出来る。
Tom plays around, yet he always does well on tests.

4. The て form can be repeated more than once in a clause. Just like the particle と1 makes an exhaustive listing of nouns, the て form can list verbs and adjectives exhaustively. (Related: たり~たりする; や) Example:

エミーは美しくて明るくて人に親切だ。
Amy is pretty, cheerful and kind to people.

5. て form verbs are also used with such expressions as いる1 'be doing ~', から 'after' and はいけない 'must not do ~'.

Basic Page 468

㊦ても

Conjunction

[x] is used when that which is expressed in the main clause is not what is expected from the content of the dependent ([x]) clause.	Even if; although
【Related Expression: けれど; のに1; たって】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 私は雨が降っても行く・行きます。

I'll go there even if it rains.

(ksb). 私は寒くても出かける・出かけます。

I'll go out even if it is cold.

(ksc). 僕がトムでも同じことをしただろう・でしょう。

Even if I were Tom, I would probably have done the same thing.

Formation

(i){V/Adjective(い/な)} て	も
	話しても	Even is someone talks
	食べても	Even if someone eats
	高くても	Even if it is expensive
	静かでも	Even if it is quiet
(ii) Noun	でも
	先生でも	even if someone is a teacher

Examples

(a). 中山さんは本を買っても読みません。

Mr. Nakayama doesn't read books even if he buys them.

(b). 私は四時間歩いても疲れなかった。

I didn't get tired although I walked for four hours.

(c). 何を食べても美味しいです。

No matter what I eat, it tastes good.

(d). 誰に聞いても分からなかった。

No matter who I asked, I couldn't get the answer.

(e). A:煙草を吸ってもいいですか。 B:はい、いいです。

A: May I smoke? B: Yes, you may.

(f). どんなに日本語が難しくてもやってみます。

No matter how difficult Japanese may be, I will try it.

(g). どんなに丈夫でも体には気をつけた方がいい。

No matter how healthy you are, you'd better take good care of yourself.

(h). 井上さんが先輩でも僕ははっきり言うつもりだ。

I intend to speak straightforwardly, even if Mr. Inoue is my senior.

Notes

1. The basic meaning of ても is the same as the English phrase 'even if ~'

2. てもいいですか as in Example (e) is an idiomatic expression used to request permission to do something. If the answer is in the affirmative, it is "はい、いいです。" (Yes, you may.) If it is in the negative, it is "いえ、いけません。" (No, you may not.)

3. Interrogative word ても means 'no matter Interrogative word', as in Examples (c), (d), (f), and (g). Typical usages are listed below:

誰に話しても	no matter who someone talks to
何を話しても	no matter what someone talks about
どこで話しても	no matter where someone talks
いつ話しても	no matter when someone talks
どう話しても	no matter how someone talks
どんなに話しても	no matter how much someone talks

【Related Expressions】

ても is comparable but not identical to けれど 'although' and のに 'in spite of the fact that'. The semantic difference is exactly that of English 'even if' vs. 'although'. (⇨ けれど; のに1) Thus,

[1]

中山さんは本を買っても/買うけれど/買うのに読みません。
Mr. Nakayama doesn't read books even if/although he buys them.

However, if て is used with an interrogative word, it cannot be replaced by けれど or のに.

[2]

何を食べても/*食べるけれど/*食べるのにおいしいです。
No matter what I eat, it tastes good.

Basic Page 471

㊦てもいい

Phrase

A phrase which expresses persmission or concession.	May; It is all right if
【Antonym Expression: はいけない】

Key Sentences

(ksa). A:ここで煙草を吸ってもいいですか。 B:はい、いいです。

A: May I smoke here? B: Yes, you may.

(ksb). 高くてもいい・いいです。

It is all right if it's expensive.

(ksc). 学生でもいい・いいです。

It is all right if you are a student.

Formation

{V/Adjective(い/な)/Noun+copula} て	もいい
	話してもいい	May talk; it is all right if someone talks
	高くてもいい	It is all right if something is expensive
	静かでもいい	It is all right if something is quiet
	先生でもいい	It is all right is someone is a teacher

Examples

(a). この椅子を使ってもいいですか。

May I used this chair?

(b). 今日の宿題は作文です。短くてもいいですが面白いのを書いて下さい。

Today's homework assignment is a composition. It is all right if it's short, but please write an interesting one.

(c). A:テニスをしませんか。 B:下手でもいいですか。

A: Wouldn't you like to play tennis? B: Is it alright if I'm poor at it?

(d). A:何か冷たいものを飲みたいんですが。 B:ビールでもいいですか。

A: I want to drink something cold. B: Will beer do?

Notes

1. When てもいい is preceded by a verb, it means permission.

2. なくてもいい, the negative て form with もいい, means 'It is all right is ~not ~' or 'do not have to do ~'. (Complementiser phrase: なければならない)

Examples:

私はその試験を受けなくてもいい。
I don't have to take the exam.

新しくなくてもいいです。
It is all right if it's not new (or fresh).

学生じゃなくてもいいです。
It is all right if you're not a student.

3. Other expressions like よろしい(です), the polite form of いい 'good, all right', and 構いません 'don't mind' can be used in place of いい(です). The degrees of politeness in these expressions are as follows:

(4)

いい(です)→	構いません→	よろしい(です)

←less polite	more polite→

Examples:

明日休んでもよろしいですか。
Would it be all right if I take a day off tomorrow?

たばこを吸ってもかまいませんか。
Do you mind (literally: Don't you mind) if I smoke?

Note that 構う 'mind' must be negated in this expression.

4. てもいい sometimes appears with interrogative words like 何 'what' and いくら 'how much'. In this case, the expression means 'It is all right no matter what/who/how much/etc. ~' or 'It doesn't matter what/who/how much ~.' (See ても, Note 3.) Examples:

それは誰がしてもいいです。
It doesn't matter who does it.

いくら食べてもいいです。
It is all right no matter how much you eat.

Basic Page 473

㊦と (1)

Particle

A particle which lists things exhaustively.	And
【Related Expression: に (and); と2; や】

Key Sentences

(ks). マイクとディック(と)は学生だ・です。

Mike and Dick are students.

Examples

(a). 私は英語と日本語を話す。

I speak English and Japanese.

(b). ミルズさんは来年ドイツとフランスとスペインへ行くつもりだ。

Mr. Mills is planning to go to Germany, France and Spain next year.

(c). ステーキはナイフとフォークで食べる。

We eat steak with a knife and fork.

(d). 山本さんとスミスさんがテニスをしている。

Mr. Yamamoto and Mr. Smith are playing tennis.

(e). 日本語とトルコ語は似ている。

Japanese and Turkish are alike.

Notes

1. と is used to list things exhaustively. The final と is usually omitted, but the others are not. Thus, "A, B, C and D" is usually expressed as "AとBとCとD."

2. と connects noun phrases only. Thus, it cannot be used for 'and' in sentences, as seen in (1) - (3).

(⇨ て)

*ここのハンバーガーは安いといい。
Hamburgers here are cheap and good.

*ウイルソンさんは日本へ行ったと木村さんに会った。
Mr. Wilson went to Japan and met Mr. Kimura.

*春男はコンサートに行ったとゆり子は映画に行った。
Haruo went to a concert and Yuriko went to a movie.

3. "Noun1とNoun2(とNoun3...)" is a noun phrase; it can occur anywhere nouns can occur.

4. When Noun1とNoun2 is used as the subject of a sentence, the sentence may be ambiguous. In Example (d), for example, without adequate context we cannot tell if Mr. Yamamoto and Mr. Smith are playing tennis together. If the predicate contains reciprocal words such as 似る 'resemble', 同じだ 'be the same' and 結婚する 'marry', however, sentences with "Noun1とNoun2" in subject position are not ambiguous, as seen in Example (e).

【Related Expressions】

I. When Example (d) means 'Mr. Yamamoto and Mr. Smith are playing tennis together' it can be restated using と2 'with', as in [1].

[1]

a. 山本さんはスミスさんとテニスをしている。
Mr. Yamamoto is playing tennis with Mr. Smith.
b. スミスさんは山本さんとテニスをしている。
Mr. Smith is playing tennis with Mr. Yamamoto.

Note that if the speaker states [1a] or [1b] instead of Example (d), he is speaking from Mr. Yamamoto's or Mr, Smith's viewpoint, respectively.

II. や is also used to list things, but that listing is inexhaustive. Examples:

[2]

a. ミルズさんやハリスさんが来た。
Mr. Mills, Mr. Harris, and others came.
b. これはスプーンやフォークで食べる。
We eat this with utensils like spoons and forks.

III. The particle に can be used to combine two or more objects that usually come as a set.

[3]

a. 毎朝みそ汁に/とご飯を食べる。
I eat miso soup and rice every morning.
b. あの人はいつも白いシャツに/と赤いチョッキを着ている。
He is always wearing a white shirt and a red vest.

The difference between に and と is that に always implies that one or more than one object has been added to the first object as an indispensable member of the entire set. と, however, does not necessarily carry that implication.

Basic Page 476

㊦と (2)

Particle

A particle marking the noun phrase which maintains a reciprocal relationship with the subject of a clause.	With; as; from
【Related Expression: に4; と1】

Key Sentences

(ks). 私はアンディーと一緒にパーティーに行った・行きました。

I went to a party (together) with Andy.

Examples

(a). トムはジョンとよくテニスをする。

Tom often plays tennis with John.

(b). 一郎はみどりと結婚した。

Ichiro married Midori.

(c). この車は僕の車と同じです。

This car is the same as my car.

(d). 日本のきゅうりはアメリカのきゅうりと少し違います。

Japanese cucumbers are a little different from American ones.

Notes

1. When Y is the subject of a clause, X to indicates that X and Y have a reciprocal relationship. For example, in Example (a), the fact that Tom often plays tennis with John necessarily means that John often plays tennis with Tom; in other words, it means that they have a reciprocal relationship. Thus, と often corresponds to the English 'with', as in 'in the company of'. と also appears with such reciprocal verbs and adjectives as 結婚する 'marry', 喧嘩する 'quarrel', 話し合う 'discuss with', 似る 'resemble', 違う 'differ' and 同じだ 'be the same'. (See Examples (b), (c) and (d).)

2. In reciprocal sentences, the subject and X in X to are interchangeable. For example, Example (b) can be restated as in (1).

みどりは一郎と結婚した。
Midori married Ichiro.

Example (b) is described from Ichiro's point of view, while (1) is described from Midori's point of view.

(⇨ と1, Related Expression I)

【Related Expression】

Some reciprocal expressions take Xに or Xと depending on the meaning, as in [1] and [2].

[1]

a. 正男は先生と話した。
Masao talked with his teacher.
b. 正男は先生に話した。
Masao talked to his teacher.

[2]

a. 明は君子と打つかった。
Akira bumped into Kimiko.
b. 明は君子に打つかった。
Akira bumped into Kimiko.

The difference is that と implies a "bidirectional" action while に implies a "unidirectional" one. For example, [2a] implies that both Akira and Kimiko were moving, whereas in [2b] only Akira was moving. Thus, と is unacceptable in [3] because 柱 'post' is immobile.

[3]

明は柱に/*と打つかった。
Akira bumped into a post.

Basic Page 478

㊦と (3)

Particle

A particle which marks a quotation, sound or the manner in which someone/something does something.

That; with the sound of; in the manner of

Key Sentences

(ks). ヒルさんは私に日本語で「こんにちは。」と言った・言いました。

Mr. Hill said to me in Japanese, "Hello!"

Formation

(i)Quotation	と
	「私は学生です。」と	"I am a student"
	私は学生だと	That I am a student
(ii)Phonomime	と
	バタバタと	With a clattering noise
(iii)Phenomime	と
	ゆっくりと	Slowly
(iv)Psychomime	と
	うきうきと	Cheerfully

Examples

(a). トムは日本へ行きたいと言っている。

Tom says that he wants to go to Japan.

(b). これは十六世紀に建てられたと書いてあります。

It is written that this was built in the sixteenth century.

(c). 私はバスで行こうと思う。

I think I will go by bus.

(d). 子供達はバタバタと走れ回った。

The children ran around with a clattering noise.

(e). 真知子はしっかりと私の手を握った。

Machiko grabbed my hand firmly.

(f). ベンはむっつりと座っている。

Ben is sitting sullenly.

Notes

1. と is basically used to mark a quotation; the literal meaning of という is 'say with the (the sound) ~'. This use of と, however, has been extended further to cover indirect quotations, as in Examples (a) and (b), and even thoughts (i.e., internal voice), as in Example (c). Note that in Japanese と is necessary for both direct and indirect quotations, as seen in Key Sentence and Example (a).

2. と is used to mark the content of such actions as 思う 'think; feel', 考える 'think (with the intellect)', 書く 'write', 聞く 'hear', and 説明する 'explain'.

3. と is also used with phonomimes, as in Example (d). Again, the idea is that someone/something makes the sound marked by と when doing something. Note that sound symbolisms in Japanese are not children's words. Rather, they are an important part of the Japanese vocabulary.

4. When a sound is repeated twice like バタバタ in Example (d), と can be omitted. When a sound is not repeated, however, と does not drop. Examples:

a. 子供達はバタバタと/Ø走り回った。
Literally: The children ran around with a clattering noise.
b. 正男はバタンと/*Øドアを閉めた。
Masao slammed the door (literally: closed the door with a bang).

5. The use of と with phonomimes is extended to phenomimes and psychomimes, as in Examples (e) and (f), though these are not representations of actual sounds.

Basic Page 480

㊦と (4)

Conjunction

A subordinate conjunction which marks a condition that brings about an uncontrollable event or state.	If; when
【Related Expression: たら (ば, なら): 時】

Key Sentences

(ks). ニューヨークに行くと面白い店が沢山ある・あります。

If you go to New York, there are many interesting shops.

Formation

{V/Adjective (い/な) Noun+copula} informal nonpast	と
	話すと	If someone talks
	高いと	If something is expensive
	静かだと	If something is quiet
	先生だと	If someone is a teacher

Examples

(a). それは先生に聞くとすぐ分かった。

I understood it immediately when I asked my teacher.

(b). タイヤは古いと危ないですよ。

Tires are dangerous if they are old.

(c). 魚が嫌いだと日本へ行った時困りますか？

If you don't like fish, will you have trouble when you go to Japan?

(d). 学生だと割引があります。

If you are a student, there is a discount.

Notes

1. In Sentence1とSentence2, Sentence1 must be nonpast even if it expresses a past event or action, as in Example (a). Tense in expressed in Sentence2.

2. In Sentence1とSentence2, Sentence2 cannot be a command, a request, a suggestion, an invitation or a volitional sentence. The following sentences are all ungrammatical.

(1)

仕事が早く終わると私のうちに

	⎧a.	来なさい。
	⎪b.	来てください。
	⎪c.	来たらどうですか。
	⎩d.	来ませんか。

If you finish your work early,

	⎧a.	come to my place.
	⎪b.	please come to my place.
	⎪c.	why don't you come to my place?
	⎩d.	wouldn't you like to come to my place?

*仕事が早く終るとおうちにお伺いします。
If I finish my work early, I'll visit your place.

(For the correct structures, see たら, Note 4.)

★Semantic Derivations of と

Basic Page 484

㊦と言えば

Phrase

An expression which presents as the topic of a following discourse a phrase which has just been uttered.	Speaking of~
【Related Expression: ったら; って】

Key Sentences

(ks). A:この本は田中さんに借りたんです。 B:田中さんと言えばもう病気は治ったのかしら。

A: I borrowed this book from Mr. Tanaka. B: Speaking of Mr. Tanaka, I wonder if he's gotten over his illness yet.

Examples

(a). A:次の日曜日は京都へ行くつもりだ。 B:京都と言えば、春子が京都大学の入学試験に通ったそうだ。

A: I'm going to Kyoto next Sunday. B: Speaking of Kyoto, I heard that Haruko passed Kyoto University's entrance exam.

(b). A:小西君はよく休むね。 B:よく休むと言えば、山本君も最近見ませんね。

A: Mr. Konishi is absent frequently, isn't he? B: Talking about about (someone's) frequent absences, we don't see Mr. Yamamoto these days either, do we?

Notes

1. と言えば literally means 'if you say that ~', but it is used as a topic presentation expression meaning 'speaking of'.

2. Usually a noun phrase is presented by と言えば, but any sentence element is possible. For example, in Example (b), a verb phrase is presented.

3. The informal form of と言えば is って言えば.

【Related Expressions】

There are several other expressions used to present topics.

I. ったら is the abbreviation for と来たら or to と行ったら and is used to present noun phrase topics in informal conversation. It is more emphatic than the topic marker は and sometimes means something like 'when it comes to ~' or 'in the case of ~'. Example:

[1]

よし江ったら私には何も言わないのよ。
Yoshie didn't tell me anything, you know.

II. って the abbreviation for と言うと, 'when you say ~', or と言うのは 'what you say (or call) ~', is also used to present topics in informal conversation. Like to と言えば any sentence element can precede って, and that element is usually a part of the conversation partner's previous utterance. Examples:

[2]

A: シービーを買いましたよ。
I bought a CB.
B: シービーって？
(What do you mean by what you call) a CB?

[3]

A: 来週から英語を教えるんです。
I'm teaching English from next week.
B: 英語を教えるって、誰に？
Teaching English? To whom?

Basic Page 486

㊦という

Phrase

A phrase marking information which identifies or explains the noun following the phrase.

Called; that says ~; that

Key Sentences

(ksa). 「雪国」という小説を読んだ・読みました。

I read a novel called Snow Country.

(ksb). 山田さんが入院したという知らせを聞いた・聞きました。

I heard the news that Mr. Yamada has been hospitalised.

(ksc). もっと頑張らなくては(ならない)という気持ちがある・あります。

I have the feeling that I have to keep hanging in there.

Examples

(a). 「七人の侍」という映画を見たことがありますか。

Have you ever seen the film called Seven Samurai?

(b). ジューンが日本へ行くという話は本当ですか。

Is the story that June is going to Japan true?

(c). その人に会いたくないという気持ちはよく分かります。

I am well aware of your feeling that you don't want to see him.

(d). 友達が今日来るということをすっかり忘れていた。

I completely forgot the fact that my friend is coming today.

Notes

1. という is a combination of the quote marker と and いう 'call, say'.

(⇨ と3)

2. The head noun in Key Sentence (B) is a noun of communication, such as 話 'story', ニュース 'news', 知らせ 'information', 手紙 'letter' and 噂 'rumor'. The head noun in Key Sentence (C) is a noun of human emotion, such as 悲しみ 'sadness', 感じ 'feeling', 気 'feeling', 気持ち 'feeling', 恐れ 'fear' and 喜ぶ 'joy'.

3. という is optional if the preceding element is not a noun or a clause which represents a quotation, as in Key Sentence (C) and Examples (c) and (d).

4. When という is used at the end of a sentence, it means hearsay ("I heard that ~, They say ~, It is said that ~"). The sentence final という is used only in written Japanese, as in (1).

(⇨ そうだ1)

学生の話によると吉田先生は教え方が非常に上手だという。
According to the students, Professor Yoshida's teaching method is very skillful.

Basic Page 488

㊦とか

Conjunction

A conjunction that lists two or more items, actions or states as inexhaustive examples.	And; or
【Related Expression: たり; や】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 私はバッハとかモーツアルトとかベートーベンが好きだ・好きです。

I like Bach, Mozart and Beethoven, among others.

(ksb). 疲れた時はお風呂に入るとか早く寝るとかしなさい。

When you are tired, do things like taking a bath or going to sleep early.

Formation

(i)Noun	とか Nounとか…
	学生とか先生とか…	Students and teachers… (among others)
(ii)Sinformal	とか Sinformalとかする
	テレビを見るとか本を読むとかする	Do such things as watching TV or reading books

Examples

(a). 日本の茶道とか生け花とかいうものをよく知らない。

I don't know much about things like the Japanese tea ceremony and flower arranging.

(b). A:どんな日本の映画を見ましたか。 B:黒沢の「七人の侍」とか「生きる」とか「影武者」を見ました。

A: What kind of Japanese movie did you see? B: I saw Kurosawa's Seven Samurai, Ikiru and Kagemusha.

(c). A:日曜日にはどんなことをしていますか。 B:音楽を聞くとか、本を読むとかしています。

A: What sorts of things do you do on Sundays? B: I do things like listening to music or reading books.

Notes

1. The conjunction とか is a combination of the quote marker と3 and か1. That is why とか is often followed by the verb 言う 'say', as in Example (a). When とか is followed by 言う, as in (1), it is not a conjunction; it is a quote marker. The か indicates the speaker's uncertainty about the quoted report.

佐藤さんは忙しくて行けないとか言っていた。
Mr. Sato was saying he can't go there because he's busy or something.

2. Noun1とか言うNoun2 meaning 'Noun2 that is called Noun1' is another example of とか used in the above sense.

野口とかいう人が来た。
A person named Noguchi or something like that showed up.

3. SentenceとかSentenceとかする is used when a statement refers to something in general rather than to something specific. Thus, this structure is inappropriate in (3).

(See Related Expression.)

A: ニューヨークではどんなことをしましたか。
What sort of things did you do in New York?
B: *ミュージカルを見るとか美術館に行くとかしました。
I did things like watching musicals and visiting art museums.

【Related Expression】

たり~たりする, like SentenceとかSentenceとかする, indicates an inexhaustive listing of examples. It differs from SentenceとかSentenceとかする, however, in that it can be used in both general and specific statements. As noted in Note 3, the とか construction can only be used in general statements. Thus, the grammatical version of (3B) is [1].

[1]

ミュージカルを見たり美術館に行ったりしました。

When たり~たりする indicates alternative actions or states, it cannot be replaced by とか.

[2]

子供が部屋を出たり/*出るとか入ったり/*入るとかしている。
A child is going in and out of the room.

Basic Page 490

㊦時・とき

Noun

A dependent noun which indicates the time when someone/something will do/does/did something or the time when someone/something will be/is/was in some state.	At the time when; when
【Related Expression: たら; と4】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 私は日本にいた時(に)お茶を習った・習いました。

I learned the tea ceremony when I was in Japan.

(ksb). 浩は試験の時(に)風邪を引いた・引きました。

Hiroshi caught a cold at the exam time.

Formation

(i){V/Adjective い} informal	時
	{話す /話した}時	When someone talks/talked
	{高い /高かった}時	When something is/was expensive
(ii)Adjective な stem	{なだった}時
	{静かな/静かだった}時	When something is/was quiet
(iii)N	{のだった}時
	{先生の/先生だった}時	When someone is/was a teacher

Examples

(a). 松本さんは朝ご飯を食べる時いつもテレビを見る。

Mr. Matsumoto always watches TV when he eats his breakfast.

(b). テリーはジュースが安い時に沢山買っておいた。

Terry bought a lot of juice when it was cheap.

(c). 僕は静かな時しか本を読まない。

I read only when it's quiet.

(d). 私が大学生だった時妹はまだ三つだった。

When I was a college student, my sister was only three.

(e). これは出発の時に渡します。

I'll give this to you at the time of your departure.

Notes

1. 時, by itself, means 'time', but when it is used as a dependent noun with a modifying phrase or clause, it means 'at the time when' or 'when'.

2. The clause preceding 時 is a type of relative clause; therefore, the basic rules for relative clauses apply to this construction. (⇨ Relative Clause) The following two rules are particularly important:

(A) If the subject of the 時 clause is different from that of the main clause, it is marked by が. Compare (1) with Key Sentence (A):

メアリーは私が日本にいた時フランスにいた。
Mary was in France while I was in Japan.

(B) The predicate form is usually informal except that だ after Adjective な stem and Noun changes to な and の, respectively.

3. The particle に after 時 is optional. With に, time is emphasized and sometimes comes under focus. Compare the two sentences in (2).

a. 私は学生の時よく勉強した。
I studied hard when I was a student.
b. 私は学生の時によく勉強した。
It was when I was a student that I studied hard.

4. If Sentence2 in Sentence1時Sentence2 is in the past tense and Sentence1 expresses a state, the tense of Sentence1 can be either past or nonpast, as in (3).

a. 私は日本にいる/いた時田中先生に会った。
I met Professor Tanaka when I was in Japan.
b. 肉が高い/高かった時は魚も高かった。
When meat was expensive, fish was expensive, too.

5. When Sentence1 in Sentence1時Sentence2 expresses an action, the meaning of the sentence changes depending on the tenses of Sentence1 and Sentence2.

(A) When the verb in Sentence1 is not a movement verb:

a. 私はご飯を食べる時手を洗う。
I (will) wash my hands (right) before I eat my meal.
b. 私はご飯を食べた時手を洗う。
I (will) wash my hands (right) after I've eaten my meal.
c. 私はご飯を食べる時手を洗った。
I washed my hands (right) before I ate my meal.
d. 私はご飯を食べた時手を洗った。
I washed my hands (right) after I ate my meal.

(B) When the verb in Sentence1 is a movement verb:

a. 私はシカゴへ行く時すしを食べるつもリだ。
I'm going to eat sushi
(A) (right) before I leave for Chicago.
(B) on the way to Chicago.

b. 私はシカゴへ行った時すしを食べるつもリだ。
I'm going to eat sushi after I've arrived in Chicago.

c. 私はシカゴへ行く時すしを食べた。
(A) I ate sushi (right) before I left for Chicago.
(B) I ate sushi on the way to Chicago.

d. 私はシカゴへ行った時すしを食べた。
I ate sushi after I arrived in Chicago.

a. 私はシカゴへ行く時車で行く。
When I go to Chicago, I go by car.
b. *私はシカゴへ行った時車で行く。
c. 私はシカゴへ行く時車で行った。
When I went to Chicago, I went by car.
d. 私はシカゴへ行った時車で行った。
When I went to Chicago, I went by car.

【Related Expressions】

Unlike when-clauses in English, 時 clauses do not indicate condition. In other words, 時 clauses are genuine time clauses. In order to indicate condition as expressed in when-clauses, conjunctions like たら and と are used. (⇨ たら; と4) Thus, if [1] expresses a condition which causes the hearer surprise, 時 cannot be used.

[1]

You will be surprised when you see it.

In this case, tara or to must be used, as in [2].

[2]

それを{見たら/見ると/*見る時/*見た時}おどろきますよ。
You'll be surprised when you see it.

Basic Page 495

㊦ところだ (1)

Phrase

A place is in a location which takes a certain amount of time to get to.

~ is (in) a place where it takes ~ to get to

Key Sentences

(ks). 私のうちは駅から歩いて十分のところだ・です。

My house is in a place where it takes ten minutes to get to from the station on foot./ On foot my house is ten minutes from the station.

Examples

(a). 学校はうちからバスで三十分のところです。

My school is in a place where it takes thirty minutes to get to from home by bus./ By bus it takes thirty minutes to get from home to school.

(b). その病院はここから車で十五分のところだ。

The hospital is in a place where it takes fifteen minutes to get to from here by car./ By car the hospital is fifteen minutes from here.

Notes

ところだ is a simplified form of ところにある 'be located in a (where).' This expression can be simplified even more, as seen in (1).

学校はうちからバスで三十分(のところ)だ。
By bus my school is thirty minutes from home.

Basic Page 496

㊦ところだ (2)

Phrase

Someone/something is in the state where he/it is just about to do something, is doing something, has done something, or has been doing something.	Be just about to do something; be in the midst of doing something; have just done something; have been doing something; almost did something
【Related Expression: ばかり; 時】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 春江は晩ご飯を食べるところだ・です。

Harue is just about to eat her supper.

(ksb). 春江は晩ご飯を食べているところだ・です。

Harue is in the midst of eating her supper.

(ksc). 春江は晩ご飯を食べたところだ・です。

Harue has just eaten her supper.

(ksd). 春江は晩ご飯を食べていたところだ・です。

Harue has been eating her supper.

(kse). 私はもう少しで宿題を忘れるところだった・でした。

I almost forgot (was about to forget) my homework.

(ksf). 私は危ないところをジーンに助けてもらった・もらいました。

I was saved by Gene was I was in a crisis (literally: dangerous state).

(ksg). お仕事中のところをすみません。

I'm sorry to bother you in the midst of your work.

Formation

(i)Vinformal	ところだ
	{話す /話した}ところだ	Be just about to talk/have just talked
	{食べる /食べた}ところだ	Be about to eat/have just eaten
(ii)Vて{いる /いた}	ところだ
	{話している /話していた}ところだ	Be in the midst of talking/have been talking
	{食べている /食べていた}ところだ	Be in the midst of eating/have been eating
(iii)Adjective い informal nonpast	ところ
	忙しいところ	The state in which someone is busy
(iv)Adjective な stem	なところ
	大事なところ	The state in which something is important
(v)Noun の	のところ
	休みのところ	The state in which someone is off duty/on vacation

Examples

(a). 僕は今出かけるところです。

I'm just about to go out now.

(b). テリーと踊っているところをマーサに見られてしまった。

The state in which I was dancing with Terry was seen by Martha./ Martha saw me when I was dancing with Terry.

(c). ご飯を食べ終わったところにまり子が訪ねて来た。

Mariko came (to see me) at the state in which I had just finished my meal./ Mariko came to see me when I'd just finished my meal.

(d). 三章まで読んだところで寝てしまった。

I fell asleep when I had read up to the third chapter (literally: in the state in which I had read it up to the third chapter).

(e). 私は危なく溺れるところだった。

I was almost drowned.

(f). お忙しいところをどうもありがとうございました。

Thank you very much (for helping me) in the state when you are busy./ Thank you very much for sparing your precious time with me.

(g). 利男は一番大事なところでよく勉強しなかったから何も分からなくなってしまった。

Toshio has come to the point of not understanding anything because he didn't study well in the state where (the class) was the most important. / Toshio has gotten totally lost because he didn't study hard when it was most important.

(h). お休みのところをすみません。

I'm sorry (to disturb) the state in which you are off duty./ I'm sorry to bother you when you are off duty/on vacation.

Notes

1. ところ itself means 'place', but it can also mean 'state' or 'time' when it is used with a modiiying verb, adjective or noun.

2. As seen in Key Sentence (A) - Key Sentence (D), verbs which precede ところ are either past or nonpast and either progressive or non-progressive, and each one of the four verb forms expresses a different aspect of the action.

3. As seen in Key Sentence (E), when the preceding verb is nonpast and non-progressive and the following copula is in the past tense, the sentence may mean 'someone or something almost did something.' (The literal meaning is 'someone or something was about to do something.') When ところだった means 'almost did something', such adverbs as もう少しで 'just by a little' and 危なく 'nearly' are often used also, as in Key Sentence (E) and Example (e).

4. ところ can be followed by either the copula, as in Key Sentence (A) - Key Sentence (E), Examples (a) and (e), or such particles as を, に, へ and で, as in Key Sentence (F) and Key Sentence (G), Examples (b) - (d) and (f) - (h).

5. When adjectives or nouns with の precede ところ, ところ is usually followed by a particle rather than the copula, as in Examples (f) and (h). The following sentences are ungrammatical:

a. *私は今忙しいところです。
b. *私は今休みのところです。

【Related Expressions】

I. When ところ is used as a dependent noun, its function appears to be similar to that of 時. However, these two expressions are different in that ところ basically indicates a state, while 時 indicates a time. Thus, [1] makes sense by itself, but [2] does not.

[1]

僕は電話をかけるところだ。
Literally: I'm in the state where I'm going to place a call. (= I'm just about to call someone.)

[2]

*僕は電話をかける時だ。
*I am when I'm going to place a call.

II. Verbいる/いたところだ is similar to Verbいる/いた. The difference is that the former focuses more on the state or the scene while the latter concentrates on the action. Compare the usages of the two expressions in [3] and [4].

[3]

あ、ジョンが走っている/*走っているところだ。
Look! John is running.

[4]

この写真は学生がフリスビーをしているところです/*しています。
This picture shows students playing frisbee (literally: is a scene of students playing frisbee).

III. Verb informal pastところだ is similar to Verb informal pastばかりだ. However, their implications are different. That is, the former indicates that someone/something is in the state of having just done something, while the latter implies that someone/something did something and not much time has passed since then. Thus, ところだ is strange in [5] because 一週間前 'a week ago' is too far in the past to be used to express "have just done something".

[5]

私は山本先生には一週間前に会ったばかりだ/*ところだ。
I met Professor Yamamoto only a week ago.

Basic Page 501

㊦として

Particle

A compound particle which indicates the capacity, role or function of someone or something.

As; in the capacity of

Key Sentences

(ks). 田中さんはセールスマンとして採用された・されました。

Mr. Tanaka was hired as a salesman.

Formation

Noun	として
	先生として	As a teacher

Examples

(a). 私は医者としてあなたに言います。

I'll tell you (this) as a doctor.

(b). 木村さんとは友達として付き合っているだけです。

I'm just keeping company with Mr. Kimura as a friend.

(c). この部屋は物置として使っている。

I'm using this room as a storeroom.

Basic Page 502

㊦としては

Particle

A compound particle which indicates a standard for comparisons.	For
【Related Expression: にしては】

Key Sentences

(ks). このステーキは日本のステーキとしては安い・安いです。

This steak is inexpensive for Japanese steak.

Formation

Noun	としては
	先生としては	For a teacher

Examples

(a). ジョンソンさんは日本語の一年生としては日本語が上手だ。

Mr. Johnson is good at Japanese for a first-year student (of Japanese).

(b). これは日本のアパートとしては大きい方です。

For a Japanese apartment, this is one of the bigger ones.

Notes

【Related Expression】

にしては is also used to present a standard for comparisons. However, it is different from としては in terms of the speaker's presupposition. That is, sentences with Xにしては presuppose that the person or the thing referred to by the subject is X, whereas those with Xとしては have no such presupposition. In Example (a), for example, Mr. Johnson may or may not be a first-year Japanese student. However, if にしては is used, it is presupposed that he is actually a first-year Japanese student. The two expressions are also different in that ni shite wa can be used when the speaker doesn't know exactly what he is comparing with the standard he presents, but としては cannot be used in such situations. For example, suppose that someone receives a package and doesn't know its contents. In this situation, he can say 本にしては, assuming that the package contains books, but he cannot say 本としては as in [1].

[1]

これは本にしては/*としては軽すぎるね。
This is too light for books, isn’t it?

Basic Page 503

㊦つもり

Noun

An intention or conviction of a speaker (or a person with whom the speaker can empathise) about his future or past actions or current state.	Intend to ~; be convinced that ~; believe; feel sure that ~; be going to; mean
【Related Expression: はず; ようと思う】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 私は来年結婚するつもりだ・です。

I intend to get married next year.

(ksb). 父はまだ若いつもりだ・です。

My father is convinced that he is still young.

(ksc). 私はよく読んだつもりだ・です。

I'm convinced that I read it carefully.

(ksd). これはお礼のつもりだ・です。

This is my intention of appreciation.

Formation

(i)Vinformal	つもりだ
	{話す /話した}つもりだ	Intend to talk/someone is convinced he talked
(ii)Adjective い informal nonpast	つもりだ
	強いつもりだ	Someone is convinced that he is strong
(iii)Adjective な stem	なつもりだ
	元気なつもりだ	Someone is convinced that he is healthy
(iv)Noun	のつもりだ
	先生のつもりだ	Someone is convinced that he is a teacher

Examples

(a). 休みには何をするつもりですか。

What do you intend to do during the vacation?

(b). 僕は大学に行くつもりはない。

I have no intention of going to college.

(c). あんな人にはもう会わないつもりです。

I do not intend to see that kind of person.

(d). 私はまだ元気なつもりだ。

I'm convinced that I'm still healthy.

(e). 話したつもりでしたが、話さなかったんですね。

I thought I talked to you about it, but I didn't, did I?

(f). この仕事は遊びのつもりです。

This work is intended to be a pastime.

(g). それで勉強しているつもりですか。

Are you sure you can study like that?

Notes

1. つもり is a dependent noun and must be preceded by a modifier. The minimal modifier is その 'that'.

A: 行くつもりですか。
Do you intend to go there?
B: ええ、そのつもりです/*ええ、つもりです。
Yes, I do.

2. The subject of a statement containing つもりだ must be the first person or someone with whom the speaker empathizes. In a question, however, the subject must be the second person or someone with whom the hearer empathizes.

a. 僕/母/友逢/*あのサラリーマン/*あなたは食べるつもりだ。
I/My mother/My friend/That salaried man/You intend(s) to eat it.
b. *僕/*母/*友達/山田さん/あなたは食べるつもりですか。
Do / Does I / my mother / my friend / Mr. Yamada / you intend to eat it?

3. つもりだ can be negated in two ways. The verb/adjective in front of つもり can be negated, as in Example (c), or つもり can be negated as つもりはない (not *つもりではない), as in Example (b). The difference between these two negative versions is that the second version implies stronger negation than the first one, as shown by (3) below:

A: 今晩の音楽会に行くつもりですか。
Do you intend to go to tonight's concert?
B: まだよく分かりませんが、多分、行かないつもりです/??行くつもりはありません。
I can't tell for sure now, but probably I'm not going there.

【Related Expressions】

I. つもり should not be confused with はず which means 'expectation' rather than 'conviction'.

(⇨ はず)

II. つもりだ is comparable but not identical to ようと思う. Firstly, ようと思う can replace つもりだ only in Key Sentence (A), that is, only when a verb precedes つもりだ. Secondly, ようと思う indicates a spur-of-the moment decision while つもりだ indicates a more stable conviction/intention. Thus, if you are shown a car by a car salesman, you can say:

[1]

a. この車はよさそうなので買おうと思いますがいくらですか。
This car looks nice, so I think I will buy it, but how much is it?

But it is strange to say:

b. ??この車はよさそうなので買うつもりですがいくらですか。
Literally: ??This car Iooks nice, so I intend to buy it, but how much is it?

Or, if you see an interesting ad for a stereo set in the newspaper, you can say [2a] but not [2b].

[2]

a. ステレオの広告を見て買おうと思ったら家内に反対された。
Literally: Upon looking at an ad for stereos, I thought I would buy one, but my wife objected to it.
b. ??ステレオの広告を見て買うつもりだったら、家内に反対された。
Literally: Upon looking at an ad for stereos, I intended to buy one, but my wife objected to it.

Basic Page 507

㊦って (1)

Particle

A colloquial topic-introducer.	Speaking of~
【Related Expression: (の)は; と言えば (ったら)】

Key Sentences

(ksa). アメリカ人ってフットボールが好きだ・好きですね。

Speaking of Americans, they love football, don't they?

(ksb). 漢字を覚えるって大変だ・大変ですね。

To memorize kanji, it's terribly hard, isn't it?

Formation

Noun	って
	先生って	Speaking of the teacher
{V/Adjective い} informal nonpast	って
	話すって	To talk (topic)
	高いって	To be expensive (topic)

Examples

(a). 漢字って面白いですよ。

Speaking of kanji, they are interesting, I tell you.

(b). 日本人ってよく写真を撮りますね。

Speaking of Japanese people, they love taking pictures, don't they?

(c). 外国で暮らすって難しいね。

Living in a foreign country is hard, isn't it?

(d). 木が多いっていいものだね。

It's good to have many trees, isn't it?

(e). 家が広いっていいですね。

It's good to have a spacious house, isn't it?

Notes

1. You should not use Adjective な stem って unless it is an Adjective な that can be used also as a noun as in: 健康 'healthy/heal', 孤独 'lonely/loneliness', 親切 'kind/kindness', etc.

a. 健康ってありがたいですね。
Health is a precious thing, you know.
b. *元気ってありがたいですね。
Health is a precious thing, you know.

2. You should not confuse って1 with って2 of hearsay. (⇨ って2) Consider the following sentences:

a. 山崎が医者になったって本当ですか。
I heard that Yamazaki has become a medical doctor, but is it true?
b. 日本の肉が高いって、どのぐらい高いんですか。
I heard that Japanese meat is expensive, but how expensive is it?

3. って1 tends to co-occur witn the sentence-final particles ね or よ.

【Related Expression】

When って is attached to a noun as in Key Sentence (A) and Examples (a) and (b), it is close in meaning to the topic marker は. When って is attached to a sentence as in Key Sentence (B) and Examples (c), (d) and (e), it is close in meaning to (という)のは. って, however, is more colloquial and emotive than は or (という)のは. In fact, if the predicate does not express the speaker's emotive judgment/evaluation って cannot be used. Thus,

[1]

a. 山口さんは/*って先生です。
Mr. Yamaguchi is a teacher.
b. 山口さんは/って変な人ですね。
Mr. Yamaguchi is a strange person, isn't he?

Basic Page 510

㊦って (2)

Particle

A colloquial quotation marker.	That
【Related Expression: そうだ1; と3】

Key Sentences

(ks). ジェーンは踊らないって。

Jane said that she wouldn't dance/ They say that Jane won't dance.

Examples

(a). 今晩は雪が降るって。

They say it's going to snow tonight.

(b). 僕も行こうかって思いました。

I wondered if I should go there, too.

Notes

1. Quote+って2 is a colloquial version of Quote+と3. (⇨ と3) Any quotation which can precede と3 can precede って.

2. When there is a human topic in the って construction as in Key Sentence, the sentence is ambiguous as to whose quotation it is. The person who is quoting can be either the topic person or 'they'. But if a reporting verb 言う 'say' is used after って, then the sentence means 'The person (topic) says that ~'.

ジェーンは踊らないって言っているよ。
Jane is saying that she won't dance.

3. When って is not followed by a verb, the understood verb is 言う 'say'. Other verbs (i.e., 思う 'feel, think') cannot be deleted after って, as shown in Eample (b).

【Related Expressions】

I. 言った/言いました 'said', 言っている/います 'is saying' or 言っていった/いました 'was saying' can be deleted after って2, as seen in Key Sentence and [1] below, but not after と3 as seen in [2].

[1]

a. ジェーンは踊らないって言った。
Jane said that she wouldn’t dance.
b. ジェーンは踊らないって。
(= Key Sentence)

[2]

a. ジェーンは踊らないと言った。
Jane said that she wouldn't dance.
b. *ジェーンは踊らないと。

The difference between って2 and と3 is that the former is more emphatic and emotive owing to its glottal stop.

II. When the subject of the understood 言う is an unspecified person(s), as in the second interpretation of Key Sentence, って2 is similar to the hearsay そうだ1 'they say ~'. って2, however, is more colloquial and informal than そうだ1. (⇨ そうだ1) Xが言っていたけど 'X was saying but' or its variants are used when specifying an informational source in the って construction, not the usual Xによると, as shown in [3].

[3]

a. ジョンが言っていたけど，ジェーンは踊らないって。
According to John, Jane is not going to dance.
b. ジョンによると、ジェーンは踊らないそうだ/*って。
According to John, Jane is not going to dance.

Basic Page 512

㊦うちに

Conjunction

During a period when a certain situation remains in effect.	While; before; during
【Related Expression: 間(に); 前に; 中(に)】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 前田さんはアメリカにいるうちに英語が上手なった・なりました。

Mr. Maeda's English improved while he was in America.

(ksb). 何もしないうちに今年も終わった・終わりました。

Before I've achieved anything, this year is over.

(ksc). 走っているうちにお腹が痛くなった・なりました。

My stomach started to ache while I was running.

(ksd). 若いうちに本を沢山読みなさい。

Read many books while you're young.

Formation

(i)Vinformal nonpast	うちに	(Verb: stative)
	いるうちに	While someone is there
	話せるうちに	While someone can talk

(ii)Vinformal negative nonpast	うちに
	話さないうちに	Before someone talks
	食べないうちに	Before someone eats
(iii)Vている	うちに
	話しているうちに	While someone is talking
	食べているうちに	While someone is eating
(iv) Adjective い informal nonpast	うちに
	高いうちに	While something is expensive
(v)Adjective な stem	なうちに
	静かなうちに	While something is quiet
(vi)Noun の	のうちに
	休みのうちに	During the vaction

Examples

(a). 雨が降らないうちにテニスをして来ます。

I'll go and play tennis (and come back) before it rains.

(b). 忘れないうちに言っておきたいことがある。

There is something I want to tell you before I forget.

(c). 考えているうちに分からなくなった。

While thinking about it, I got lost.

(d). 働けるうちに出来るだけ働きたい。

I'd like to work as much as possible while I can work.

(e). 温かいうちに飲んで下さい。

Please drink it while it is warm.

(f). 休みのうちによく寝ておきます。

I'll sleep a lot during the vacation.

Notes

1. The うちに clause expresses the general time during which a given action or state occurs. うちに is preceded by verbs describing states or progressive actions, or by adjectives, or by nouns expressing duration such as 春 'spring', 昼間 'day time' and 週刊 'week'. (For examples, see Key Sentence (A), (C), (D) and Example (f), respectively.)

2. The tense before うちに is always nonpast, regardless of the tense of the main clause.

3. The verb before うちに is frequently negated, as in Key Sentence (B), Examples (a) and (b).

【Related Expressions】

I. When it indicates an interval of time, 間 refers to the 'time space' between two points, i.e., the beginning and the end. In other words, the time space indicated by 間 can be measured in clocktime. うち, however, does not refer to such measurable time space; it simply means 'time space within'. Thus, in a situation where a mother wants to read books while her child is away at school, either うち or 間 can be used, as in [1a]. However, in a situation where we want to play tennis before it rains, we cannot substitute 間 for うち, as in [1b], because it is impossible to specify a time boundary.

[1]

a. 子供が学校に行っているうちに/間に本を読みます。
I read books while my child is away at school.
b. 雨が降らないうちに/*間にテニスをします。
I'll go and play tennis before it rains.
c. 冷たいうちに/*間にビールを飲んでください。
Please drink the beer while it is cold.

II. The うちに construction cannot be used for situations where a noun is an event noun such as 授業 'class', 会議 'conference' and 試合 'game'.

[2]

a. 授業の間に/ちゅう(に)/*のうちによく質問をした。
He frequently asked questions during the class.
b. 試合の間に/ちゅう(に)/*のうちに雨が降って来た。
It started to rain while the game was going on.

Basic Page 516

㊦は (1)

Particle

A particle which marks a topic or a contrastive element.	Talking about~; as for~; the
【Related Expression: が】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 私は学生だ・です。

I am a student.

(ksb). 杉田さんは行きますが私は行きません。

Mr. Sugita will go (there) but I won't go.

Examples

(a). ジョーンズさんは今日本語を勉強している。

Mr. Jones is studying Japanese now.

(b). この町には大学が二つある。

There are two universities in this town.

(c). 私はビールは飲みますが酒は飲みません。

I drink beer but don't drink sake.

(d). 春子には人形を、秋子には絵本をあげた。

I gave Haruko a doll and Akiko a picture book.

Notes

1. The origin of は can be traced to the conditional marker ば. (Compare the spellings of は and ば) (⇨ ば) However, in contemporary Japanese, は is used, in general, to mark information which the speaker assumes to be part of the hearer's register. In other words, when は marks X, the speaker usually assumes that the hearer knows what X refers to. Thus, noun phrases which can be marked by は in ordinary circumstances are as follows:

(A) Common nouns whose referents have already been introduced into the discourse linguistically or extra-linguistically. Example:

昔々、一人のおじいさんが住んでいました。
Once upon a time, there lived an old man.
おじいさんはとてもやさしい人でした。
The old man was a very gentle man.

(B) Proper nouns. Examples:

アメリカ America
スミスさん Mr. Smith

太陽 sun
空 sky

(D) Generic names. Examples:

人 man
車 car

It is noted that は never marks interrogative words such as 何 'what' and 誰 'who' .Thus, (5) is ungrammatical.

*誰はパーティーに来ましたか。
Who came to the party?

This is because interrogative words do not refer to a known thing and, therefore, their referents can never be in the hearer's register.

2. More specifically, は marks a topic and/or a contrastive element. When は is used as a topic marker, as in XはY, X is something the rest of the sentence (i.e., Y) is about, and the focus of the sentence falls on Y or part of Y. The topic Xは normally appears at the beginning of a sentence.

3. は is also used to mark a contrastive element, as in Key Sentence (B), Examples (c) and (d). However, whether は is being used as a topic marker or as a contrastive marker is not always clear. This is not clear particularly when there is one element X marked by は but there is no other element Y explicitly contrasted with X. Here are some general rules for determining whether a given は is topical or contrastive.

(A) When more than one は appears in a sentence, as in "XはYはZは...", the first は is usually understood to be the topic marker, the second は is more contrastive than the first one, the third one is more contrastive than the second, and so on. Examples :

太郎はテニスは出来ます。
Taro can play tennis.

僕は今日はテニスはしない。
I won't play tennis today.

(B) When Xは is pronounced with stress, it marks a contrastive element. Examples:

私は一年です。
(I don't know about other people but, at least) I am a freshman.

ビールは飲みます。
(I don't drink other drinks but) I drink beer.

4. When は is used in negative sentences, it marks the negated element. This is a special use of は as a contrastive marker. Compare the following sentences:

a. 私はきのうボストンへ行かなかった。
I didn't go to Boston yesterday.
b. 私はきのうはボストンへ行かなかった。
I didn't go to Boston yesterday.
c. 私はきのうボストンへは行かなかった。
I didn't go to Boston yesterday.

(10a) simply states that the speaker didn't go to Boston yesterday. (10b) negates yesterday, implying that the speaker went to Boston on other days or that he usually goes to Boston on that day but didn't yesterday. Likewise, (10c) negates to Boston, implying that the speaker went somewhere but it was not to Boston.

5. There are rules for particle ellipsis when は marks noun phrases with case markers (i.e., particles such as the subject marker が (= が1) and the direct object marker を (= を1)).

(A) When は marks Xがa or Xを, が or を must drop. (Examples (a) and (c))

(B) When は marks Xへ or Xに6 (location), へ or に optionally drop, (Example (b))

(C) When は marks Xに1/に2/に3/に4 (time, indirect object, agent, contact), Xで, Xと, Xから, Xまで or Xより, the case marker usually remains and は follows it, forming a double particle. (Example (d)) More examples follow:

ここではたばこを吸わないでください。
Please don't smoke here.

田中さんとはよく会います。
I see Mr. Tanaka often.

6. The topical は does not appear in subordinate clauses, as in (13).

a.花子は私が/*はきのう酒を飲んだことを知っている。
Hanako knows that I drank sake yesterday.
b.私が/*は読んだ本は「雪国」です。
The book I read was Snow Country.

Basic Page 520

㊦わ (2)

Particle

A sentence final particle used in weak assertive or volitional sentences by a female speaker.

Key Sentences

(ks). 私も明日のパーティー行くわ。

I'll go to tomorrow's party, too.

Examples

(a). 大木さんはもう帰りましたわ。

Mr. Ooki has already gone home.

(b). 久子はまだ学生ですわ。

Hisako is still a student.

(c). この部屋は小さいわ。

This room is small.

Notes

1. The sentence particle わ is used only in female speech and expresses the speaker's weak assertion or volition. In addition, わ sometimes expresses the speaker's intimacy or friendliness.

2. わ can follow any declarative sentence, but cannot follow the volitional forms of verbs. Thus, the following sentence is ungrammatical.

*私が行きましょう/行こうわ。
I will go.

Note that わ cannot be used in questions.

a. *ジャクソンさんは学生ですかわ。
Is Mr. Jackson a student?
b. *ジャクソンさんは学生ですわか。
Is Mr. Jackson a student?
c. *ジャクソンさんは学生ですわ？
Is Mr. Jackson a student?

3. Other sentence particles such as ね and よ can occur with くぁ. In this case, わ must precede these particles.

私も行くわね。
I'll go there, too. All right?

私も行くわよ。
I'll go there, too. [Emphatic]

Basic Page 521

㊦は～だ

Structure

Someone or something is/was someone or something or is/was in some state, or will do/does/did something.

Key Sentences

(ksa). これは本だ・です。

This is a book.

(ksb). コンサートは八時からだ・です。

The concert is from eight o'clock.

Examples

(a). あの人は先生だ。

That person is a teacher.

(b). 私はジョーンズです。

I am Jones.

(c). 授業は四時までです。

My classes are till four o'clock.

(d). 今度の試合はワシントン大学とだ。

The next game is against the University of Washington.

Notes

八時にうちに来たのは森田さん(*が)だ。
It was Mr. Morita who came to my house at eight o'clock.

森田さんが持って来たのはケーキ(*を)だ。
It was cake that Mr. Morita brought here.

森田さんがケーキをくれたのは弟(に)だ。
It was to my brother that Mr. Morita gave cake.

森田さんがうちに来たのは車でだ。
It was by his car that Mr. Morita came to my house.

a. 森田さんが来たのは東京からだ。
It was from Tokyo that Mr. Morita came.
b. 森田さんが出発したのは東京(から)だ。
It was from Tokyo that Mr. Morita departed.

a. 森田さんが飲んだのは田山さんとだ。
It was with Mr. Tayama that Mr. Morita drank.
b. 森田さんが一緒に飲んだのは田山さん(と)だ。
It was with Mr. Tayama that Mr. Morita (literally: together drank.)

In (5b) and (6b) the particles から and と normally drop, because 出発した 'departed' and 一緒に 'together' generally co-occur with から and と, respectively.

3. The element between のは and だ cannot be a manner adverb. The following sentences are all unacceptable.

*花子が歩いたのはゆっくりだ。
*It was slowly that Hanako walked.

*太郎が字を書いたのはきれいにだ。
*It was beautifully that Taro wrote characters.

Unlike English, the copula だ in this construction is normally in the present tense.

きのう買ったのはステレオです/???でした。
It was a stereo set that I bought yesterday.

ジョンがジェーンに東京で八月に会った。
John met Jane in August in Tokyo.

a. ジェーンに東京で八月に会ったのはジョンだ。
It was John who met Jane in August in Tokyo.
b. ジョンが東京で八月に会ったのはジェーンだ。
It was Jane whom John met in August in Tokyo.
c. ジョンがジェーンに八月に会ったのは東京(で)だ。
It was in Tokyo that John met Jane in August.
d. ジョンがジェーンに東京で会ったのは八月だ。
It was in August that John met Jane in Tokyo.

私が作っているのがロボットです。
The one I'm making is a robot.

ロボットは私が作っています。
Speaking of robots, I'm making one.

【Related Expression】

の in the present construction should not be confused with the の used as a nominalizer. Sentence [1] is the のは~だ construction and [2], the nominalized sentence.

(⇨ の3)

[1]

本を読むのはたいてい夜だ。
It is usually at night that I read books.

[2]

本を読むのはいいことだ。
It is a good thing to read books.

[3]

たいてい夜本を読む。
I read books usually at night.

[4]

a. *いいこと本を読む。
b. *本をいいこと読む。
c. *本を読むいいこと。

Basic Page 525

㊦は～が

Structure

A construction which relates a non controllable state of something or someone to a topic

Key Sentences

(ks1). 私は英語が分かる・分かります。

To me, English is understandable.

(ks2). 花子は目が奇麗だ・奇麗です。

Speaking of Hanako, her eyes are pretty.

(ks3). 辞書はウェブスターがいい・いいです。

Talking about dictionaries, Webster's is good.

Examples

(a). 高志はテニスが上手だ。

Takashi is good at tennis.

(b). 私はボーイフレンドが欲しい。

I want a boyfriend.

(c). 僕はフットボールが好きだ。

I like football.

(d). 象は鼻が長い。

Elephants have long trunks.

(e). 私はお腹が空いた。

I am hungry.

(f). ミラーさんは背が高い。

Mr. Miller is tall.

(g). 日本はステーキが高い。

Steak is expensive in Japan.

(h). 海は日本海が奇麗だ。

Talking about the sea, the Japan Sea is clean.

(i). 日本の野球はどこが強いですか。

Talking about baseball in Japan, who is strong?

Notes

1. "AはBがC" is one of the basic constructions in Japanese. In this construction, C usually expresses something about B and "BがC" expresses something about A, as illustrated in (1).

2. Sentences utilizing this construction may be categorized into three classes:

A is human, and "BがC" expresses A's physical and/or mental state, for example, ability or desire, as in Key Sentence (1), Examples (a), (b) and (c).

B is part of A, and C expresses something about B, which, in turn, expresses something about A, as in Key Sentence (2), Examples (d), (e), (f) and (g).

B is a member of A, and C expresses something about B, as in Key Sentence (3), Examples (h) and (i).

3. Listed below are the verbs and adjectives which usually require the "AはBがC" construction. (Sentences with these verbs and adjectives belong to Class (A) in Note 2.)

分かる be understandable; understand
出来る can be done; can do
られる2 can 見える be visisble 聞こえる be audible
上手だ good at 下手だ poor at
得意だ proudly good at 苦手だ ashamedly poor at

(⇨ 聞こえる; 見える; られる2)

欲しい desireable; want たい want to
要る be necessary; need 必要だ necessary

(⇨ 欲しい1; 要る3; たい)

好きだ be liked; like 嫌いだ be disliked; dislike

(⇨ 嫌いだ; 好きだ)

恥ずかしい embarrassing 懐かしい nostalgic
憎らしい hateful 恐ろしい dreadful
怖い fearful 羨ましい enviable
悔しい vexing

Basic Page 528

㊦はいけない

Phrase

A phrase which indicates prohibition.	Cannot do something; must not do something; don't do something; should not do something
【Related Expression: はならない】

Key Sentences

(ks). この部屋に入ってはいけない・いけません。

You must not enter this room.

Formation

Vて	はいけない
	話してはいけない	Must not talk
	食べてはいけない	Must not eat

Examples

(a). 教室でものを食べてはいけません。

You must not eat (food) in the classroom.

(b). 花子はまだ酒を飲んではいけない。

Hanako must/can not drink alcohol yet.

Notes

1. In Verbてはいけない, the second person subject is usually omitted, as in Key Sentence and Example (a).

2. Verbてはいけない is often used as a negative answer to "Verbてもいいです (May I ~?)."

(⇨ てもいい)

【Related Expression】

Verbてはならない also expresses prohibition. Verbてはならない, however, sounds a little stronger than Verbてはいけない.

Basic Page 529

㊦分かる・わかる

Verb (Group 1)

Can figure out (spontaneously) various facts –such as content, nature, value, meaning, cause, reason, result– about something whose existence is presupposed.	Be comprehensible; understand; can tell; figure out
【Related Expression: 知る】

Key Sentences

(ks). 私(に)はこの言葉が分からない・分かりません。

To me this word is not comprehensible./ I don't understand this word.

Examples

(a). 私にはこの映画の意味が分からない。

I don't understand the meaning of this movie.

(b). この問題は難しくて分からない。

This problem is too difficult to understand.

(c). 明日までにこの仕事が出来るかどうか分かりません。

I can't tell if I can finish this work by tomorrow.

(d). A:田中さんを知っていますか。 B:ええ、知っていますが、あの人はどうもよく分かりません。

A: Do you know Mr. Tanaka? B: Yes, I know him, but he is somehow incomprehensible to me.

Notes

1. The basic pattern for this verb is the は～が pattern. (⇨ は~が) The experiencer of 分かる takes に optionally, as in Key Sentence.

2. Because 分かる is already a potential verb, it cannot take the potential form 分かれる 'can understand'.

3. 分かる normally takes が to indicate the object of comprehension, but must take を when 'non-spontaneous comprehension' is involved, as in causative sentences (1a) or sentences in which the experiencer makes a conscious effort to understand something (1b).

a. 親の死を/*が小さい子供に分からせるのは難しい。
It is hard to make a small child comprehend the death of a parent.
b. ジャックはリンダの気持ちを/*が分かろうとしない。
Jack does not try to understand Linda's feelings.

【Related Expression】

分かる indicates 'the process of figuring sometning out' and is different from 知る which basically means 'to get some raw information from some outside source'. The primary difference between the two verbs is illustrated in the following sentences:

[1]

友達に間いて大野の結婚のことを知っていた/*が分かっていた。
I knew about Ono's marriage by hearing it from a friend.

[2]

よく考えれば分かります/*知りますよ。
If you think hard, you'll understand/*know it.

[3]

A: いくらか分かりますか。
Can you tell how much it is?
B: はい、調べれば分かります/*知ります。
Yes, I can tell/*know it, if I check into it.

[4]

A: 今晚何をするつもりですか。
What do you intend to do tonight?
B: まだ分かリません/*知りません。
I don't know yet.

Basic Page 531

㊦わけだ

Phrase

The speaker's conclusion obtained through deductive, logical judgment or calculation on the basis of what he has heard or read.	No wonder; so it means that ~; that's why; should ~; I take is that ~; naturally
【Related Expression: はずだ】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 毎日三時間も日本語を勉強いるんですか。よく出来るわけですね。

Are you studying Japanese (as long as) three hours every day? No wonder your Japanese is good.

(ksb). 明日試験ですか。じゃあ今晩忙しいわけですね。

Do you have an exam tomorrow? Then, you must be busy tonight.

Formation

(i){V/Adjective い} informal	わけだ
	{話す /話した}わけだ	I take it that someone talks/talked
	{食べる /食べた}わけだ	I take it that someone eats/ate
	{高い /高かった}わけだ	I take it that something is/was expensive
(ii)Adjective な stem	{なだった}わけだ
	{静かな/静かだった}わけだ	I take it that something is/was quiet
(iii)Noun	{というだった}わけだ
	{先生という/先生だった}わけだ	I take it that someone is/was a teacher

Examples

(a). スミスさんは十年間もテニスをしたのだから上手なわけだ。

Mr. Smith has played tennis for ten years, so he should be good at it.

(b). A:来月から四ヶ月フランスに行きます。 B:すると、六月に帰ってくるわけですね。

A: I'll go to France next month and stay there for four months. B: Then, I take it that you're returning here in June?

(c). 毎日プールで泳いでいるんですか。丈夫なわけですね。

Are you swimming in the pool everyday? No wonder you're healthy.

(d). 昨日は三時間しか寝ていない。道理で眠いわけだ。

Yesterday I slept only three hours. No wonder I am sleepy.

(e). えっ？足立さんが入院したんですか。パーティーに来なかったわけだ。

What? Was Mr. Adachi hospitalized? No wonder he didn't come to the party.

(f). A:山田さんは英語のことは何でも知っています。 B:生き字引というわけですか。

A: Mr. Yamada knows everything about English. B: You mean he is a living dictionary?

(g). 父の言うことが分からないわけではないが、どうしても医者になりたくない。

It is not that I don't understand what my father is saying; I simply don't want to become a medical doctor.

Notes

1. わけ can be used as a full noun, meaning reason as in (1) and (2) below:

会社をやめたそうですが、そのわけを聞かせてください。
I heard that you quit the company. Let me hear the reason for that.

ここに来たわけは言えません。
I can't tell you the reason why I came here.

2. わけで is the て form of わけだ.

お母さんと二人だけですか。そういうわけで結婚出来ないんですか。
It's only you and your mother? For that reason you can't get married, eh?

【Related Expression】

はずだ 'expect' is similar but not identical to わけだ. はずだ can express a speaker's expectation when there is no preceding context; わけだ cannot. In other words, わけだ is highly dependent on verbal context.

(⇨ はずだ)

[1]

a. あしたは授業がないはず/*わけですよ。
I expect that there is no class tomorrow.
b. あの人は若いはず/*わけですよ。
I expect him to be young.

Basic Page 535

㊦屋・や

Suffix

A suffix attached to names of stores, inns and Japanese style restaurants or to persons engaged in certain occupations

Store

Examples

(a). 花屋本屋薬屋肉屋パチンコ屋パン屋魚屋酒屋

Florist bookstore drug store butcher pinball parlor bakery fishmonger liquor store

(b). 酒屋さんに電話してビールを三ダース持って来てもらった。

I called the man at the liquor store and had him bring me three dozen beers.

(c). あの人は政治家ではなくて政治屋だ。

He is not a statesman but a mere politician.

Notes

The suffix 屋 is sometimes used to downgrade a person. This use, however, is very restricted. Examples follow:

恥ずかしがり屋 a shy person
いばり屋 a haughty person
気取り屋 an affected person

Note that these examples are all derived from Verbます+屋, as in 恥ずかしがり+屋, いばり+屋 and 気取り+屋.

Basic Page 536

㊦や

Conjunction

A coordinate conjunction that is used to list two or more items (nouns or noun phrases) in an inexhaustive fashion.	And
【Related Expression: と1; とか】

Key Sentences

(ks). 山田さんや小川さんが来た・来ました。

Mr. Yamada and Mr. Ogawa (and others) came.

Examples

(a). 山本さんやスミスさんがテニスをしている。

Mr. Yamamoto, Mr. Smith and others are playing tennis.

(b). 僕はビールやワインを飲んだ。

I drank beer, wine and other things like that.

(c). 土田さんは大川さんや鈴木さんに手紙を書いた。

Mr. Tsuchida wrote a letter to Mr. Okawa and Mr. Suzuki (and others).

Notes

1. や is used to combine two or more nouns or noun phrases. It cannot be used to combine predicates. Thus, (1) is unacceptable.

*きのうはデパートに行きましたや映画を見ました。
Yesterday I did things like going to a department store and seeing a movie.

Instead of (1) we have to use たり~たりする to express an inexhaustive listing of predicates, as in (2).

(⇨ たり~たりする)

きのうはデパートに行ったり映画を見たりしました。

2. NounやNoun can be used as a noun phrase in any position where a single noun can be used. It can be used as the subject, as in Key Sentence and Example (a), or as the direct object as in Example (b), or as the indirect object as in Example (c).

3. NounやNoun cannot appear in the position of X in the XがYだ construction, because が in XがYだ is a highly exhaustive listing marker.

(⇨ が1)

*ジェーンやミッシェルが学生です。
*Jane and Michelle and only they (and others) are students.

This idea can be conveyed using the construction in (4):

学生はジェーンやミッシェルです。
The students are Jane or Michelle (and others).

【Related Expression】

とか is used to make a rather general, inexhaustive listing of items as examples, whereas や is used to make an inexhaustive listing of items related to a specific time and place. Consider the following examples:

[1]

A: スミスさんは例えばどんな日本食が好きですか。
Mr. Smith, what kind of Japanese cuisine do you like? Give me some examples.
B: そうですね。てんぷらとか/?やすきやきとか/?や刺身ですね。
Well,I'd say tempura, sukiyaki and sashimi (and others).

A: きのう料理屋で何を食べましたか。
What did you eat at the Japanese restaurant?
B : てんぷらや/???とかすきやきや/???とか刺身を食べました。
I ate tempura, sukiyaki and sashimi (and others).

Basic Page 538

㊦やはり

Adverb

An adverb indicating that the actual situation expectedly/anticipatively conforms to a standard based on past experience, comparison with other people, or common sense.	Still; also; after all; as expected; you know
【Related Expression: 結局; さすが(に)】
【Antonym Expression: まさか】

Key Sentences

(ks). ベイリーさんはやはり来なかった・来ませんでしたね。

As expected, Mr. Bailey hasn't come, has he?

Examples

(a). 雪子さんは今でもやはり奇麗です。

Yukiko is still pretty.

(b). お兄さんはテニスが上手ですが、弟さんもやっぱり上手ですよ。

The other brother is good at tennis, and the younger brother is also good at it.

(c). やはり日本のビールは美味しいですね。

As expected, Japanese beer is good.

(d). 僕はやはり結婚することにしました。

I've decided to get married, after all.

Notes

1. やはり is a speaker-oriented adverb because its use is based on the speaker's subjective and presuppositional standards. Its overuse in conversation makes a discourse overly subjective, but its proper use in conversation makes a discourse sound like real Japanese.

2. やはり can be positioned sentence-initially or sentence-medially, just like other adverbs. Thus, in Key Sentence やはり can be positioned in two ways.

a. やはりベイリーさんは来なかったね。
b. ベイリーさんはやはり来なかったね。
c. ?ベイリーさんは来なかったね，やはり。

The sentence-initial やはり is more emphatic than the sentence-medial やはり. The sentence-final やはり as in (1c) sounds like an after-thought, and its usage is slightly marginal.

3. やっぱり is a more emphatic and emotive version of やはり, owing to its glottal stop 'っぱ'.

【Related Expressions】

I. さすが is an adverb/adjective な whose meaning is similar to やはり. さすが, however, has only one meaning 'as expected' and indicates that the speaker is very much impressed or surprised by the given situation.

[1]

a. さすが(に)日本人はよく働く。
Truly Japanese people work hard!
b.さすが(に)アメリカは広い。
Exactly as I expected, America is huge.

さすが(に) can replace やはり only when やはり means 'as expected', as in Key Sentence and Example (c).

II. The adverb 結局 'after all, in short' can replace やはり only when the latter means 'after all', as in Example (d). More examples follow:

[2]

a. 色々薬を飲んだがやはリ/結局治らなかった。
I took all kinds of medicine, but I wasn't cured.
b.やはリ/結局行かないことにした。
After all, I decided not to go there.

In [2] 結局 sounds more formal than やはり, because the former is a Sino-Japanese word, while the latter is a Japanese word. Yet both can be used in conversational Japanese.

III. The adverb まさか 'by no means, on no account, surely not' is used when a given situation is far from the speaker's expectation. In that sense, it is an antonym of やはり. まさか is used with a negative predicate or is used all by itself, meaning 'Unbelievable!, You don't say!'.

[3]

a. まさか小川さんが先生になるとは思わなかった。
I never expected Mr. Ogawa to become a teacher.

A: トムが入院したそうだ。
I heard that Tom was hospitalized.
B: まさか！　きのうテニスをしていたよ。
You don't say! He was playing tennis yesterday.

Basic Page 541

㊦易い・やすい

Auxiliary Adjective (い)

Something or someone is easy to~.	Easy to; ready to; be apt to; prone to; do something easily
【Antonym Expression: 難い】

Key Sentences

(ks). この漢字は覚え易い・易いです。

This kanji is easy to memorise.

Formation

Vます	易い
	話し易い	Easy to speak
	食べ易い	Easy to eat

Examples

(a). あの人のうちは見つけ易い。

His house is easy to find.

(b). 佐藤先生は話し易いです。

Professor Sato is easy to talk to.

(c). このペンは書き易い。

This pen is easy to write with.

(d). 上野さんは一緒に仕事がし易かった。

Mr. Ueno was easy to work with.

(e). 豆腐は腐り易い。

Tofu rots easily.

Notes

1. Verbます易い is an い type compound adjective and conjugates as an Adjective い, as seen in the following：

		Informal	Formal
Affirmative	Nonpast	話しやすい	話しやすいです
Affirmative	Past	話しやすかった	話しやすかったです
Negative	Nonpast	話しやすくない	話しやすくないです話しやすくありません
Negative	Past	話しやすくなかった	話しやすくなかったです話しやすくありませんでした

2. The following sentences (1) - (4) are closely related to Examples (a) - (d).

あの人のうちを見つける。 [Example (a)]
One locates his house.

佐藤先生に話す。 [Example (b)]
One talks to Professor Sato.

このペンで書く。 [Example (c)]
One writes with this pen.

上野さんと一緒に仕事をした。 [Example (d)]
One worked together with Mr. Ueno.

The noun phrases in (1) through (4) above, such as the direct object を, the indirect object に, the instrumental phrase で, and the comitative phrase と are the sources for the topic (subject) of Examples (a), (b), (c) and (d), respectively. It is important to note that all these particles drop in the 易い construction, and that the topic is the new subject of the 易い construction.

3. If the subject of the 易い construction is under focus, it is marked by が, as in (5).

(⇨ が1)

A: どの先生が話しやすいですか。
Which professor is easy to talk to?
B: 佐藤先生が話しやすいです。
Professor Sato is easy to talk to.

The antonym of 易い is 難い 'hard to ~', and it is used in exactly the same way as 易い.

(⇨ 難い)

Basic Page 547

㊦ようだ

Auxiliary Adjective (な)

An auxiliary な type adjective which expresses the likelihood of something/someone or the likeness of something/someone to something/someone.	Look like; look as if; be like; appear; seem
【Related Expression: だろう; らしい; そうだ1; そうだ2】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 杉山さんはアメリカへ行くようだ・ようです。

It appears that Mr. Sugiyama is going to America.

(ksb). 上田さんはボクシングが好きなようだ・ようです。

Mr. Ueda appears to like boxing.

(ksc). あの人は田中先生のようだ・ようです。

That person looks like Professor Tanaka.

(ksd). A:石井さんはもう帰りましたか。 B:はい、そのようです。

A: Has Mr. Ishii gone home already? B: Yes, it looks like it.

Formation

(i){V/Adjective い} informal	ようだ
	{話す /話した}ようだ	It seems that someone (will) talk/talked
	{高い /高かった}ようだ	It seems that something is/was expensive
(ii)Adjective な stem	{なだった}ようだ
	{静かな/静かだった}ようだ	It seems that something is/was quiet
(iii)Noun	{のだった}ようだ
	{先生の/先生だった}ようだ	It seems that someone is/was a teacher
(iv)Demonstrative	ようだ
	そのようだ	It seems so

Examples

(a). 木村さんは昨日お酒を飲んだようだ。

It seems that Mr. Kimura drank sake yesterday.

(b). この問題は学生にはちょっと難しいようだ。

This problem seems to be a little difficult for the students.

(c). ここは昔学校だったようだ。

It seems that this place used to be a school.

(d). この酒は水のようだ。

This sake is like water.

Notes

1. ようだ expresses the likelihood of something/someone, or the likeness of something/someone to something/someone. In either case, when the speaker uses ようだ, his statement is based on firsthand, reliable information (usually visual information).

2. ようだ can be used in counter-factual situations, as in Ex. (d). In this case, the adverb まるで 'just' can be used for emphasis.

木村さんはまるで酒を飲んだようだ。
Mr. Kimura looks as if he had just drunk sake.

あの人はまるで日本人のようです。
That person is just like a Japanese person.

3. ようだ is a な type adjective and has the prenominal form ような and the adverbial form ように. (⇨ ように2) Examples:

今日田中さんのような人を見ました。
I saw a man who looked like Mr. Tanaka.

スミスさんは日本人のように日本語を話します。
Mr. Smith speaks Japanese like a Japanese.

4. The colloquial version of ようだ is みたいだ, which is also a な type adjective. The uses of みたいだ are exactly the same as those for ようだ. The formation rules are as follows:

{Verb/Adjectiveい} informal みたいだ

{Adjective な stem/Noun} {Ø/だった} みたいだ

【Related Expressions】

The conjecture expressions Sentenceだろう, Sentenceらしい and Sentenceそうだ2 convey ideas similar to Sentenceようだ. The differences are as follows：

(A)

Sentenceだろう expresses the speaker's conjecture, but it is not necessarily based on any information. In other words, Sentenceだろう can be used when the speaker is merely guessing.

(B)

Sentenceらしい usually expresses the speaker's conjecture based on what the speaker has heard or read. That is, the information his conjecture is based on is not firsthand.

(C)

Sentenceそうだ2 expresses the speaker's conjecture about what is going to happen or the current state of someone or something. Although this expression is based on what the speaker sees or feels, it is merely his guess and the degree of certainty in his statement is fairly low. Only Verbます or Adjective (い/な) stem can precede そうだ2.

(D)

ようだ

The following examples demonstrate the differences among these four expressions. The sentences in [1] present examples with the adjective 高い 'expensive' before the conjecture auxiliaries.

[1]

a.この本は高いだろう。
This book is probably expensive.
b. この本は高いらしい。
(From what I heard and/or read,) this book seems expensive.
c. この本は高そうだ。
This book looks expensive.
d. この本は高いようだ。
(Considering the prices of similar books,) tins book seems expensive.

Here, [1a] is mere conjecture, [1b] expresses the speaker's conjecture based on what he has heard and/or read. (If the sentence involves little conjecture, it is almost like hearsay. (⇨ そうだ1)) [1c] is also the speaker's guess, but in this case it is based on what he sees. [1d] expresses the speaker's judgment about the price of the book. Note that in [1d] the speaker knows the book's price; therefore, this is not a guess. [2] provides examples with the noun 先生 'teacher' preceding the conjecture words. The differences in meaning among the sentences here are the same as those explained in [1], except that [2c] is ungrammatical.

[2]

a. あの人は先生だろう。
I guess he is a teacher.
b. あの人は先生らしい。
(From what I heard,) he seems to be a teacher.
c. *あの人は先生そうだ。
d. あの人は先生のようだ。
(Judging from how he looks,) he seems to be a teacher/He looks as if he were a teacher.

In [3], the verb 降る 'fall' precedes the conjecture auxiliaries.

[3]

a. 今日は雨が降るだろう。
I guess it will rain today.
b. 今日は雨が降るらしい。
(From what I heard,) it seems that it will rain today.
c. 今にも雨が降りそうだ。
It looks like it's going to rain at any moment.
d. この辺はよく雨が降るようだ。
(Judging from the abundance of trees and moss,) it appears that it rains a lot around here.

Here, [3a] is the speaker's guess. [3b] is the speaker's conjecture based on what he heard or it is almost like hearsay. [3c] is also the speaker's guess, but, in this case, he is probably looking at the sky. Like [3c], [3d] is based on what the speaker sees, but in this case the information is reliable, and involves the speaker's reasoning process.

The diagram in [4] summarizes the characteristics of the four conjecture expressions and そうだ1 (hearsay).

[4]

information→	[耳],[本]→	そうだ1 (hearsay)	→report
information→	[目]→	conjecture→	そうだ2	→report
information→	[耳],[本]→	conjecture→	らしい	→report
information→	reasoning/judgment→	conjecture→	ようだ	→report
information→	?→	conjecture→	だろう	→report

Basic Page 553

㊦ように (1)

Conjunction

Do something in such a way that ~.

So that

Key Sentences

(ksa). 読めるように字を奇麗に書いて下さい。

Please write it neatly so that I can read it.

(ksb). 風邪を引かないように気をつけている・います。

I'm taking care of myself so that I don't catch a cold.

Formation

Vinformal nonpast	{potential/ negative}ように
	{話せる/話さない}ように	So that someone can talk/does not talk
	{食べられる/食べない}ように	So that someone can eat/does not eat

Examples

(a). 僕が分かるようにスミスさんはゆっくり英語を話してくれた。

Mr. Smith spoke English slowly so that I could understand him.

(b). 遅れないようにタクシーで行きました。

I went there by taxi so that I wouldn't be late.

(c). 病気が治るように薬を飲んだ。

I took medicine so that I would recover from illness.

(d). 子供が本を読むように面白そうな本を買って来た。

I bought some interesting-looking books so that my child would read books.

Notes

1. Although ように1 can be used with almost any informal nonpast verb, it is most commonly used with potential verb forms (as in Key Sentence(A) and Example (a)) and negative verb forms (as in Key Sentence (B) and Example (b)).

2. ように言う 'tell someone to do something', ようになる 'reach the point where ~' and ようにする 'try to ~' are idiomatice uses of ように

(⇨ ように言う; ようになる; ようにする)

Basic Page 554

㊦ように (2)

Auxiliary Adjective (な)

An adverbial form of ようだ

As; like

Key Sentences

(ksa). 私が言うように書いて下さい。

Please write it down as I tell you.

(ksb). 今日は春になったように暖かい・暖かいです。

Today is as warm as if it had become spring.

(ksc). ドロシーは日本人のように日本語を話す・話します。

Dorothy speaks Japanese like a Japanese.

Formation

(i){V/Adjective い} informal	ように
	{話す /話した}ように	As someone talks/talked; as if someone (had) talked
	{高い /高かった}ように	As something is/was expensive; as if something were/had been expensive
(ii)Adjective な stem	{なだった}ように
	{静かな/静かだった}ように	As something is/was quiet; as if something were/had been quiet
(iii)Noun	{のだった}ように
	{先生の/先生だった}ように	Like a teacher/as someone was a teacher; as if someone were/had been a teacher

Examples

(a). 前に話したように私は来月会社を辞めます。

As I told you before, I'm going to quit the company next month.

(b). 上田さんのように走れますか。

Can you run like Mr. Ueda?

(c). 若い時のようには元気がなくなった。

I don't feel as strong as I used to when I was young.

(d). 土井さんはいつものように朝六時に起きた。

As usual Mr. Doi got up at six in the morning.

(e). 兄がスポーツが上手なように弟も上手だ。

Just like the older brother, the younger brother is also good at sports.

(f). 猫が可愛いように犬も可愛い。

Dogs are cute, just like cats.

Notes

1. ように1 expresses purpose but ように2 doesn't; it expresses similarity, especially in appearance.

(⇨ ように1)

2. ように2 can express a counterfactual situation as in Key Sentence (B). The adverb まるで 'just' is often used to emphasize counterfactuality. Examples follow:

a. まるで生き返ったように元気になった。
Literally: He recovered as if he had risen from the dead.
b. あの子はまるで大人のように話す。
That child speaks as if he were an adult.

Basic Page 556

㊦ように言う

Phrase

Tell someone in such a way that he will do something.

Tell~ to~; say~ in such a way

Key Sentences

(ks). 先生は学生に宿題をするように言った・言いました。

The teacher told his students to do homework.

Formation

Vinformal nonpast	ように言う
	話すように言う	Tell someone to talk
	食べるように言う	Tell someone to eat

Examples

(a). 坂本さんは雪江に図書館の前で待っているように言いった。

Mr. Sakamoto told Yukie to be waiting in front of the library.

(b). すみませんが、小林さんに明日朝九時にここへ来るように言って下くださいませんか。

I'm sorry, but could you please tell Mr. Kobayashi to come here at 9 o'clock tomorrow morning?

(c). 私は聞こえるようにはっきり言ったんですが…

I said it in such a way that it was clearly audible, but...

Notes

1. ように言う can be used either as an indirect imperative as in Key Sentence and Examples (a) and (b), or to mean 'say in such a way that ~,' i.e., the use of ように1 (⇨ ように1) In the former case, the verb must be a controllable verb a verb that represents something controllable by human volition, such as する 'do', 待つ 'wait', 来る 'come', 読む 'read' and 買う 'buy'. In the latter case the verb must be a noncontrollable verb, such as 分かる 'understand', 聞こえる 'be audible' (Example (c)), or a potential form of verbs.

2. When ように言う is used as an indirect imperative, the verb 言う can be replaced by other verbs such as 頼む 'ask', 命じる 'order' and 求める 'request'.

田中さんは山本さんにすぐ来るように言った/頼んだ/命じた。
Mr. Tanaka told/asked/ordered Mr. Yamamoto to come (to his place) immediately.

The direct imperative versions of (1) are something like (2). Notice that there is more than one direct imperative form if the directive verb is 言う.

a. 田中さんは山本さんに「すぐ来てください(来なさい/来い)。」と言った。
Mr. Tanaka said to Mr. Yamamoto, "Please come (Come) here right away."
b. 田中さんは山本さんに「すぐ来い。」と命じた。
Mr. Tanaka ordered Mr. Yamamoto, "Come here right away!"
c. 田中さんは山本さんに「すぐ来てください。」と頼んだ。
Mr. Tanaka asked Mr. Yamamoto, "Please come here right away."

Basic Page 559

㊦ようになる

Phrase

Some change takes place gradually.	Reach the point where~; come to~; it has come to be that~; have finally become
【Related Expression: ことになる; なくなる; ようにする】

Key Sentences

(ksa). ジャクソンさんは日本語が話せるようになった・なりました。

Mr. Jackson has reached the point where he can speak Japanese.

(ksb). 林さんは酒を飲まないようになった・なりました。

Mr. Hayashi has reached the point where he does not drink sake./ Mr. Hayashi doesn't drink sake any more.

Formation

Vinformal nonpast	ようになる
	{話す /話さない}ようになる	Someone reaches the where he talks/doesn't talk
	{食べる /食べない}ようになる	Someone reaches the point where he eats/doesn't eat

Examples

(a). 難しい日本語が読めるようになりました。

I am finally able to read difficult Japanese.

(b). パットは私と話さないようになった。

Pat doesn't talk with me any more.

(c). もうすぐ面白さが分かるようになりますよ。

You'll soon come to understand the fun of it, I tell you.

(d). この道は今通れないようになっている。

This street has reached a point where people cannot pass./ At present we cannot use this street.

Notes

1. Although ようになる usually indicates a gradual change, when it is preceded by an affirmative verb the change may not take place gradually. Thus, an adverb such as 急に 'suddenly' can co-occur with an affirmative verb and ようになる as seen in (1).

うちの子は最近急に勉強するようになったんですよ。
Literally: Recently our child has suddenly reached the point where he studies.
(= Recently our child suddenly started to study.)

When ようになる is preceded by a negative verb (as in Key Sentence (B)), however, the change must take place gradually. If the change is not gradual, なくなる is used in place of ないようになる.

(See Related Expression II.)

2. ようになっている emphasizes a current state that has come about after a long process, as in Example (d).

3. There are two ways to negate this construction, but the meanings are completely different. The verb before ように can be negated, as in (2a), or the verb なる can be negated, as in (2b).

a. 漢字が覚えられないようになった。
I've reached the point where I can't memorize kanji.
b. 漢字が覚えられるようにならなかった。
I haven't reached the point where I can memorize kanii.

(2a) means that the speaker can't memorize kanji any more, and (2b) means that he is not yet able to memorize kanji.

4. ように by itself can be used as an adverbial phrase, along with main verbs other than なる.

(⇨ ように1; ように2)

【Related Expressions】

I. ことになる 'it has been decided that ~' and ようになる are related expressions in that both of them indicate some change, but they differ in that the former implies a passive decision, while the latter suggests a change brought about by a long process. Compare the following sentences:

[1]

a. 私は大阪に転勤することに/*ようになりました。
It has been decided that I will transfer to Osaka.
b. 私は英語が話せるように/*ことになりました。
I've reached the point where I can speak English.

II. When the verb before ようになる is negated, as in Key Sentence (B), this construction can be compared to the なくなる construction.

[2]

a. 林さんは酒を飲まないようになった。(= Key Sentence (B))
Mr. Hayashi doesn't drink sake any more.
b. 林さんは酒を飲まなくなった。
Mr. Hayashi doesn't drink sake any more.

The ないようになった version in [2a] implies a more gradual change than the なくなった version in [2b]. Thus, adverbs such as 急に 'suddenly' or 突然 'suddenly' can co-occur with [2b] but not with [2a].

Basic Page 562

㊦ようにする

Phrase

Someone causes some circumstantial or behavioural change to take place.	Do~ in such a way that~; see to it that~; make sure that~; bring it about that~
【Related Expression: ようになる】

Key Sentences

(ks). 私は毎日運動するようにする・します。

I'll make sure that I do exercises everyday.

Formation

Vinformal nonpast	ようにする
	{話す /話さない}ようにする	Someone makes sure that he/someone else talks/doesn't talk
	{食べる /食べない}ようにする	Someone makes sure that he/someone else eats/doesn't eat

Examples

(a). 出来るだけ日本語で話すようにしています。

I'm making sure I speak Japanese as much as possible.

(b). 山川には会わないようにした。

I've made sure that I won't see Yamakawa.

(c). 分からないことは先生に聞くようにしている。

I made a point of asking my teacher about the things I don't understand.

(d). 毎朝八時に来るようにして下さい。

Please make sure that you come at eight every morning.

(e). 後ろからもよく見えるようにしました。

I've seen to it that people can see from the rear seats, too.

(f). 成績がよくなるようにした。

I've made sure that my grades will improve.

Notes

1. ようにしてる expresses someone's habitual act of making sure that he or someone else will do (or will not do) something, as shown in Examples (a) and (c).

2. The subjects in the ように clause and in the main clause may or may not be identical. In (1a), the subjects are different, but in (1b), they are identical.

a. ジョンはメアリ一が行けるようにした。
John has seen to it that Mary can go there.
b. ジョンは行けるようにした。
John has seen to it that he (= John) can go there.

3. There are two ways to negate this construction, but the meaning changes according to the pattern. The verb before ように can be negated as in (2a), or the verb する can be negated as in (2b).

(2)

a. 小川は山本が勉強出来ないようにした。
Ogawa made sure that Yamamoto couldn’t study.
b. 小川は山本が勉強出来るように(は)しなかった。
Ogawa didn't make sure that Yamamoto could study.

In (2a) Ogawa is directly involved in preventing Yamamoto from studying, but in (2b) Ogawa just didn't bother to assist Yamamoto's studying.

4. When an Adjective (い/な) or Noun is used before ようにする, the verb なる is used as follows:

(i)

Adjectiveいstemくなる	ようにする
{高くなる/高くなくなる}	ようにする	make sure something becomes/won't become expensive

(ii)

{Adjectiveなstem/Noun}になる	ようにする
静か{に/ではなく/じゃなく}なる	ようにする	make sure something is/won't be quiet
先生{に/ではなく/じゃなく}なる	ようにする	make sure someone is/won't be a teacher

【Related Expression】

ようになる 'reach the point where' is the intransitive counterpart of ようにする. The former only indirectly implies human efforts behind some change that will occur or has occurred, but the latter straightforwardly indicates human efforts. For example, in [1a] the speaker can get up early in the morning almost effortlessly, but in [1b] he has to make sure that he can get up early in the morning.

[1]

a. 朝早く起きられるようになリました。
I am finally able to get up early in the morning.
b. 朝早く起きられるようにしています。
I am making sure that I can get up early in the morning.

Basic Page 564

㊦より (1)

Particle

A particle which indicates that something/someone is being compared with something/someone.	Than; rather ~ than ~; more ~ than ~
【Related Expression: 方が~より】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 日本語はスペイン語より(も)面白い・面白いです。

Japanese is more interesting than Spanish.

(ksb). 車で行くほうがバスで行くより(も)安い・安いです。

Going by car is cheaper than going by bus.

(ksc). 私は旅行するより(も)うちにいたい・いたいです。

I'd rather stay at home than go on a trip.

(ksd). これより(ほか(に))方法はない・ありません。バスで行くより(ほか(に))仕方がない・ありません。

There is no other way than this. There is no other way than to go by bus.

Formation

(i)Noun	より
	これより	Than this
(ii){V/Adjective い} informal nonpast	より
	話すより	Than talking
	高いより	Than being expensive
(iii)Adjective な stem	なより
	静かなより	Than being quiet
(iv)Noun	であるより
	先生であるより	Than being a teacher

Examples

(a). 漢字は平仮名より難しい。

Kanji is more difficult than hiragana.

(b). 林さんは私より速く走れる。

Mr. Hayashi can run faster than I can.

(c). 僕はステーキより魚の方が好きだ。

I prefer fish to steak.

(d). 図書館で勉強するほうが家で勉強するよりよく出来る。

Studying at the library is more productive than studying at home.

(e). それは赤と言うより茶色に近かった。

That was closer to brown rather than saying it was red.

(f). 日本語を勉強したかったら、アメリカの学校で勉強するより日本へ行きなさい。

If you want to study Japanese, go to Japan rather than studying at a school in America.

Notes

1. Either a noun phrase or a sentence precedes より. When verbs precede より, they are usually nonpast. However, there are a few cases where past tense verbs are used, as in (1).

その試験は思ったよりやさしかった。
The exam was easier than I thought.

2. In Key Sentence (A), Key Senence (B) and Key Sentence (C), も is optional after より and does not change the meaning ot the sentence.

Basic Page 567

㊦より (2)

Particle

A particle which indicates a set point in terms of space or time.	In~ of; inside; outside; before; after
【Related Expression: から1】

Key Sentences

(ks). メキシコは赤道より北にある・あります。

Mexico is located north of the equator.

Examples

(a). この線より内側に入ってはいけません。

You must not get inside this line.

(b). 三時より前に来て下さい。

Please come before three o'clock.

(c). これより先はバスがありません。

There's no bus service from here (beyond this point).

Notes

The use of より as a marker indicating a set point in terms of location can be extended to more abstract locations, as in (1).

八十点よリ上は合格です。
Literally: Eighty point up is a pass. (= The passing mark is eighty.)

【Related Expression】

から can be used in place of より2 when から indicates a set point in space, as in [1].

(⇨ から1)

[1]

この線から/よリ内側に入ってはいけません。
You must not get inside this line.

When より indicates a point in time, however, から can replace it only if it indicates a starting time. Thus, から in [2a] is grammatical, but から in [2b] is not.

[2]

a. 三時より/から後に来てください。
Please come after three o'clock.
b. 三時より/*から前に来てください。
Please come before three o'clock.

It is also noted that より2 implies a comparison of two things, while から has no such implication.

Basic Page 569

㊦ようと思う

Phrase

The speaker desires of decides to do something.	~think~ will
【Related Expression: つもり】

Key Sentences

(ksa). 私は日本歴史を読もうと思う・思います。

I think I will read Japanese history (books).

(ksb). 私はもう酒を飲むまいと思う・思います。

I think I will not drink alcohol any longer.

Formation

(i)Vinformal volitional	と思う
	話そうと思う	I think I will talk
	食べようと思う	I think I will eat
(ii)Vinformal nonpast	まいと思う
	話すまいと思う	I think I will not talk
	食べるまいと思う	I think I will not eat

Examples

(a). 夏休みに日本アルプスに登ろうと思います。

I think I will climb the Japan Alps during summer vacation.

(b). 森さんはワープロを買おうと思っています。

Mr. Mori is thinking of buying a word processor.

(c). 僕はあの人とはもう話すまいと思う。

I think I won't talk to that person any more.

Notes

1. When the subject is not the first person, as in Example (b), the nonpast form of 思う cannot be used. Thus, the following sentence is unacceptable.

*森さんはワープロを買おうと思う/思います。

The reason why (1) is unacceptable is that 思う represents an internal feeling of the speaker alone. Therefore, when the subject is the third person, 思う has to be replaced by the stative 思っている which means 'he (= the third person subject) has indicated that he feels ~, in such a way that the speaker can see and/or hear what he feels'. Observe the following sentence.

私/*父/*山下さんはその映画を見ようと思います。
I/My father/Mr. Yamashita think(s) I/he will see that movie.

It is also to be noted that ようと思う cannot be used as a question.

??あの本を読もうと思いますか。
Do you think you will read that book?

2. The negative version of ようと思う is Verb informal nonpast まいと思う, as seen in Key Sentence B and Example (c).

3. The verb that precedes よう must be a verb that represents sometning controllable by human volition. Thus, the following sentences are all ungrammatical, because the verbs are noncontrollable.

a. *車を買えようと思う。
I think I can buy a car.
[Correct phrase= 車を買えると思う。]
I think I can buy a car.
b. *お金をもらったら喜ぼうと思う。
I think I'll be happy if I get money.
[Correct phrase= お金をもらったら喜ぶだろうと思う。]
I think I will probably rejoice if I receive money.
c. *雨に降られようと思う。
I think I will be caught in the rain.
[Correct phrase= 雨に降られると思う。]
I think I will be caught in the rain.

A passive verb can be used with ようと思う, however, if the speaker perceives the passive situation as somehow controllable, as in (5).

たまには先生にほめられようと思う。
Literally: I think I will do my best to be praised by my teacher once in a while.

Basic Page 572

㊦ずつ

Particle

A particle that indicates equal distribution of quantity.

By; at a time.

Key Sentences

(ks). 私は漢字を毎日五つずつ覚える・覚えます。

I memorize five kanji every day.

Examples

(a). 毎月三冊ずつ本を買っています。

I'm buying three books per month.

(b). ゴルフが少しずつ上手になって来た。

I have become a better golfer bit by bit.

(c). 私は子供達に本を二冊ずつやった。

I gave two books to each of the children.

(d). どのクラスにも女子学生が六人ずついた。

There were six girl students in each class.

Notes

1. The particle ずつ is used only after a quantifier (= an expression of quantity).

2. A sentence without ずつ can express virtually the same fact. Compare Key Sentence and Example (a) with (1a) and (1b), respectively.

a. 私は漢字を毎日五つ覚える。
I memorize five kanji every day.
b. 毎月三冊本を買っています。
I'm buying three books every month.

A sentence with ずつ focuses on equal distribution of quantity, but a sentence without ずつ doesn't.

DoJG: Dictionary of Japanese Grammar reference

DoJG basic reference

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[Related Expression]

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